The Self System: Toward a New Understanding of the Whole Person (Part 2)

Abstract

Of all psychology concepts, perhaps none has a more lengthy history or engendered more controversy and ambiguity than that of the self. Indeed, the self has come to mean so many things that it hardly means anything at all. Consequently, there is currently no single theory integrating all the various meanings of the self concept. Therefore, the primary purpose of this article is to develop an overarching metapsychology by which all aspects of the self can be understood.

To accomplish this purpose, this article engages in a hermeneutic analysis of the self as it appears in cognitive-behavior psychology, the psychoanalytic theories of ego and self psychology, and humanistic–existential theories of the self. In so doing, it is possible to identify three principle concepts by which the various aspects of the self can be compared and classified: the Conflation Frame, the collapsing of entity, intellect, and identity into a single rendering of the self; the Integral Interface, the overriding theoretical framework within which each of these aspects of self can be differentiated and subsumed; and the Integral Axes, the two fundamental tracks by which the individual grows and develops, which consist of self-actualization and self-emancipation.     

Toward a New Understanding of Nature, Reality, and the Sacred: A Syllabus

Adjustments in the understanding of the relation of religion and science since the Enlightenment require new considerations in epistemology and metaphysics. Constructionist theories of knowledge and process theories of metaphysics better provide the new paradigms needed both to preserve and to limit the significance of each field of human understanding. In a course taught at Moravian College, this perspective is applied to the concepts of nature, reality, and the sacred, with a view to showing how we might develop one such paradigm. Key resources for this task are to be found in the work of artist René Magritte; theologians Langdon Gilkey, Arthur Peacocke, and John Haught; philosophers and historians of science Alfred North Whitehead, Timothy Ferris, Ernan Mc Mullin, and Ian Barbour; philosopher of religion Paul Ricoeur; and historians of religion Rudolph Otto and Mircea Eliade. Such a new paradigm calls for an ecologically sensitive religious awareness which is both sacramental and holistic.     

Theological and Ethical Reflections on Men and Violence: Toward a New Understanding of Masculinity

Abstract

This paper explores the reasons why men express violence against women, children and other men, suggesting that men's violence represents one of the darkest features of masculinity. The way men are socialized and conditioned requires and produces violent behaviors that are destructive to men themselves as well as to women, children, and the earth. The author proposes the need to re-envision masculinity to enable men and women to create communities in which people are encouraged to participate in ‘adventurous partnering for peace’.     

Anticipating the Self: Toward a Personal Construct Model of Emotion

Previous accounts of the role of emotion in construct theory place insufficient emphasis on the constructive role of emotion as a “feeling toward.” Emotion is regarded either as an epiphenomenon of acts of construal or as an outcome of prior cognitive processes. It is argued in this paper that emotion performs an anticipatory role in pursuit of the current concerns of the self, a view that follows from a closer analysis of the function of anticipation. A revision of the control systems theory of Carver and Scheier (1981) is proposed, in which emotional anticipation at the level of the self is distinguished from schema-based anticipation at the level of behavior. Given the framework of personal construct theory as a method of analysis, this revised view of emotion enables a range of self-concept processes to be better understood.     

Toward Full Development of the Person

The norm for mental health is not what it should be. Counseling theory is currently expanding its horizons to encompass higher potential of human behavior. The Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) is presented as a theoretical model for the promotion of more complete development of the individual. SCI's applied aspect, the Transcendental Meditation program, is discussed in terms of research data and its application to the developmental concepts of readiness, intensity of challenge, and identify. The article concludes with a preliminary discussion of the possible interface of present counseling modalities and the practice of SCI. Perhaps SCI has relevance to planning for the promotion of greater mental health.     

Junzi as a Tragic Person: A Self Psychological Interpretation of the Analects

This article explicates self psychological connotations of junzi (君子) in the Analects of Confucius. Junzi is a noble person who attempts to actualize Confucian cardinal virtues in concrete human relationships at any cost. Kohut argues that a tragic person is faithful to the psychologically structured ideals even at the expense of death. Like a tragic person, a junzi follows his or her ideals and values, which are deeply anchored in the nuclear self. In the Analects, a junzi remarkably resembles a tragic person. A junzi in the Analects shows the characteristics of a tragic person: empathy, creativity, humor, and wisdom.     

The Rorschach and MMPI: Toward a More Scientifically Differentiated Understanding of Cross-Method Assessment

Reasons for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and Rorschach disagreement at the nomothetic level are explored. Building on an understanding of measurement distinctions from other sciences, it is proposed that the Rorschach and MMPI procedures are differentially sensitive to unique manifestations of personality. By necessity, each method is then also recognized as having a limited scope of effectiveness, such that neither can provide a complete picture of personality in its full complexity. Drawing on the more extensive self-report literature, the idiosyncracies and limited scope of the self-report method are documented. Finally, an ideographically rooted, cross-method, configural model is proposed for validation research in personality assessment. Several examples consistent with this approach are drawn from the assessment literature and discussed.     

The Embodied and Contingent Self in Later Life: A Narrative Understanding

This article examines a narrative understanding of identity and discusses its relevance within the sociocultural contingencies of the postmodern age. Providing an historical overview of understandings of the self, Meador traces the lineage of the self from Augustine through contemporary theories of identity. He focuses on the narrative concept of identity, acknowledging the existence of multiple narratives—those that individuals tell about themselves and those told by others. Finally, he explores the transformative potential available within this context for those in their later years.     

Death as a Factor in Understanding Modern Attitudes Toward the Aging:

This article challenges the adequacy of the eight primary theories that are used to analyze and account for what happens to persons in contemporary U.S. culture during the aging process. The theory presented in this article, Symbolization-Avoidance Theory, draws its clue from contrasting attitudes toward death during several periods in this country's history. The author suggests that there is a direct correlation between the modern avoidanceldenial of death through "removal," and the image of elders as symbolic reminders of death, resulting in their rejection/departmentalization through "invisibility." This phenomenon, destined to become a growlng dynamic in the future, is the dynamic known as "ageism."     

Toward a Developmental Understanding of the Counseling Specialty: Lessons From our Students

Trends in professional practice and training have led to a debate concerning the need for an increasing remedial emphasis within the counseling field. Proposals for an integration of the counseling and clinical specialties have been opposed by those arguing that a specialty differentiation captures meaningful differences. This article hypothesizes that the counseling specialty is distinguished by its reliance on a developmental metatheory, which makes unique assumptions regarding distress, change, and the helping process. This metatheory is rooted in a rich theoretical and empirical tradition and has generated innovations in practice that transcend usual remedial forms of helping. It is proposed that the value of developmentalism and the counseling specialty are most evident in the developmental interventions of college counseling.     

In Search of the Whole Person: Critical Reflections on Community Language Learning

Teaching methods in the modem-language classroom are widely assumed to be relatively value-neutral techniques, justified by their pragmatic usefulness. Charles A. Curran's “Community Language Learning” is unusual in that it deploys concepts taken from Christian theology in order to expound its core ideas. This article examines the degree to which Curran's methods harmonize with Christian faith, focusing in particular on the concepts of community, autonomy, agency, and the “whole person.” By means of this specific study, the author hopes to shed light on the larger question of how methods in modem-language teaching may be evaluated critically by Christian educators.     

The Unity of Self at the Interface of the Animal Body and the Cultural System

The self is defined by unity, which must be constructed from multiple inner processes and representations. The unity is more a requirement of social life than of brain activities. The self exists at the interface between the physical body and the social system, which for humans includes culture. The three main aspects of the self are a network of information (sometimes called the self-concept), an interpersonal being (e.g., member of a group or relationship), and executive function (e.g., making decisions). For each of these, multiple inner processes and representations must be integrated to produce the unity of self. Conscious processing plays a key role in this integrative process, because it is a vital means by which different areas of brain and mind exchange information.     

The Relationship Between Understanding of Self and Others in Children's Friendships

This study examined the relationship between Australian children's acceptance of self and their stage of friendship expectations. Subjects, 116 boys and 92 girls (8 to 13 years old), completed the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale and a Picture Sequence Task. The results showed that children who were at the evaluation, admiration, and common activities stages of friendship expectations reported comparatively lower self-acceptance feelings for the global self and for a number of minor self-concept areas than did those who were at higher developmental levels.     

Self-Presentation Concerns May Contribute Toward the Understanding of Athletes' Affect When Trialing for a New Sports Team

A vignette-based experimental manipulation was used to examine the impact of self-presentation concerns on athletes' affect and cognitive appraisal. Others' reactions were described, so as to emphasize or deemphasize self-presentation concerns. Athletes given cause to believe that they were generating unfavorable impressions experienced more negative affect and reported more threat-based appraisal. Athletes exposed to information deemphasizing self-presentation concerns experienced more positive affect and reported more of a challenge-based appraisal. The findings indicate a potential opportunity (e.g., deemphasizing self-presentation concerns, providing a supportive interpersonal environment) that others (e.g., coaches and teammates) could act on to improve athlete experiences during sports trials.