Some statistical considerations in multidimensional scaling

Some shortcomings of current methods of estimating the magnitude of perceived difference are considered. A statistical model for perceived difference is derived which avoids these difficulties and employs judgments of ratios of differences as data. Three estimators of squared difference are developed.This study was conducted while the author was a Psychometric Fellow at Princeton University and Educational Testing Service and is part of a dissertation presented in candidacy for the degree of doctor of philosophy. This research was supported by Office of Naval Research Contract Nonr 1858 and by National Science Foundation Grant GB3402. Extensive use was made of the computing facilities of Princeton University supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant NSF-GP579. The author wishes to express his appreciation to Prof. H. Gulliksen, Prof. F. Geldard, Dr. C. Helm, and Dr. F. Lord for their comments and encouragement.     

Heuristic judgment of mass ratio in two-body collisions

The logic of judging relative mass from a two-body collision is developed from data presented by Runeson and Vedeler (1993). Data from two experiments are analyzed on a point-by-point basis, and strong support for the theory that mass-ratio judgments are mediated by separate speed and angle heuristics is shown. This analysis is accomplished by reducing the collision event to two elementary features: the presence of ricochet and the ratio of exit speeds. The heuristics that both ricochet and greater exit speed specify relative lightness are shown to explain the basic patterns of data presented by Runeson and Vedeler.     

A course in the theory of mental tests

An outline for a course in test theory is presented, together with a list of assignments, problems, and a bibliography. The course has been given in the Psychology Department of the University of Chicago. The material is presented in outline form at the present time because of the increased need for training in test theory due to the increase in the use of psychological tests for classification of military personnel, and because much of the material in such a course must be selected from a wide array of articles in the literature. This material is presented in order that an organized body of material for instructional purposes may be readily available to those interested.On leave from the University of Chicago for a government research project at the College Entrance Examination Board, Princeton, New Jersey.     

Elementary Particles,Hidden Variables,And Hidden Predicates

We recently showed that it is possible to deal withcollections of indistinguishable elementary particles (in thecontext of quantum mechanics) in a set-theoretical framework, byusing hidden variables. We propose in the presentpaper another axiomatics for collections of indiscernibleswithout hidden variables, where hidden predicates are implicitlyassumed. We also discuss the possibility of a quasi-settheoretical picture for quantum theory. Quasi-set theory, basedon Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, was developed for dealing withcollections of indistinguishable, but, not identical objects.     

Catharsis: A Means of Reducing Elementary School Students' Aggressive Behaviors?

Cathartic procedures, which are based on the hypothesis that acts of aggression will reduce the incidence of further agression, were questioned as to their effectiveness in dealing with elementary school children's aggressive behaviors. Research findings suggest that such techniques may tend to increase rather than decrease student aggressiveness. It was therefore concluded that a re-evaluation of the catharsis theory and the procedures or practices resulting from it is needed in our elementary schools. Several alternative procedures for reducing the occurrence of aggressive behaviors were presented for the reader to consider and evaluate in light of such recent findings.     

Note on the selection of a panel of judges so as to maximize panel efficiency

Attempts to develop improved methods of selecting a panel of judges for psychometric work are presented. The applications reported are in the sensory field and are limited to the assumption of a unidimensional ability underlying the judgments in question. Some aspects of cost efficiency are also considered.The writers wish to acknowledge the value of a discussion with Dr. Harold Gulliksen of Princeton University and the Educational Testing Service, Princeton; Dr. Frederic Lord, also of the Educational Testing Service, contributed some valuable criticisms. The writers' thanks are also due Mr. George Bosy, at the Research Laboratories, Kraft Foods Company, where the senior author is currently employed.     

Components of reliability

As an alternative to the analysis of variance approach to reliability a multiple-factor analysis approach is illustrated. The one-factor and the multiple-factor models for reliability are compared. Tests on the latent roots associated with the principal components of intercorrelation matrices are used to determine the number of components to be retained. Conditions under which one or more of the principal components should be utilized are discussed.This investigation was completed at the Oregon Research Institute and supported by NIMH grant MH-0892-01 and NSF grant GB-257. Computations were performed at the Western Data Processing Center and the Health Sciences Computing Facility, University of California at Los Angeles.     

Does natural law have non-normative foundations?

This paper addresses one aspect of the natural law theory of Germain Grisez. According to Grisez, practical reason identifies the goods of human life prior to the invocation of any moral or normative notions. It can thus provide a non-normative foundation for moral theory. I present Grisez’s position and argue that the apparently non-normative aspect of natural law cannot support the moral position built upon it. I argue, in particular, that practical principles, as Grisez understands them, are best understood as speech acts. If this is correct, it is possible to develop a sceptical challenge to Grisez’s position. I am grateful to Michael Frede, Robert George, Richard Holton, Philip Pettit, and two anonymous reviewers for many helpful comments on this paper. This paper was presented at a seminar in the Department of Philosophy at Princeton University in November 1987, and I am grateful for the comments I received from the audience—in particular, Germain Grisez—on that occasion.     

On linear combinations of binary item scores

A method is given for finding a linear combination of binary item scores that minimizes the expected frequency of misclassification, in discriminating between two groups. The item scores are not assumed to be stochastically independent. The method uses the theory of threshold functions, developed by electrical engineers. Since psychometricians may not be familiar with this theory an elementary introduction to the required material is also given.     

Rational choice and polynomial measurement models

Rational choice behavior is defined in a manner that subsumes rational choice theory as part of general measurement theory. The special class of polynomial measurement problems are defined, and their solutions are reduced to solving polynomial inequalities. An algebraic criterion is given for the solvability of arbitrary finite sets of polynomial inequalities, resolving a conjecture of Tversky.     

Computerized process control in behavioral science research

A general approach to the design and development of real-time operating systems is discussed. Operating system design for small to medium scale laboratory computers is described at a moderately elementary level. Analysis of system design as a supervisory control hierarchy is presented in an attempt to bridge the gap between an elementary general understanding of computer operation and the more sophisticated understanding assumed by the writers of most computer systems operator’s manuals. PROSS, a programming language developed at Indiana University, is presented as an example of the highest level of supervisory control.     

The categorization of sentential contexts

A new experimental method, involving the sorting of linguistic contexts, is shown to be effective in discriminating the contexts of polysemous words as well as the contexts of synonyms of those words. These results are interpreted as support for the claim that the method of sorting linguistic contexts is a valid technique for studying the contextual information available to support inferences about word meanings.The research reported in this article was part of the author's work submitted as a doctoral thesis to Princeton University. It was supported in part by Contract MDA 903-86-K-0242 between the Army Research Institute and Princeton University. The views and conclusions in this article are those of the author and should not be interpreted as representing official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Army Research Institute or Princeton University.     

The Legitimacy of Elementary School Counseling: Some Unresolved Issues and Conflicts

The increased expansion of counseling services at the elementary school level has had few critics, for the services are long overdue and desperately needed. Three factors seem to have escaped close scrutiny by most members of the guidance profession. First, all too often the training, preparation, and models of elementary counselors are those originally devised for secondary school pupils and seem grossly inadequate for elementary age children. Second, there is a serious lack of both theory and research at the elementary level and this raises serious questions as to direction and methodology. Third, the problem of role conflict is heightened at the elementary level and raises serious questions regarding the success of guidance policies and programs. It is suggested that only an immediate increase in interest, research and theory by counselor educators can save elementary guidance from falling into the hands of other disciplines or school administrators.     

The Production of Meaning through Peer Interaction: Children and Walt Disney’s Cinderella

For many years researchers have understood that gender roles in children’s literature have the capacity to create and reinforce “meanings” of femininity and masculinity (Currie, Gend. Soc., 11: 453–477, 1997; Gledhill, Genre and gender: The case of soap opera. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation (pp. 339–383). London: Sage, 1985; Tatar, Off with their heads!: Fairy tales and the culture of childhood. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993; Zipes, Happily ever after. New York: Routledge, 1997). The purpose of this study was to investigate children’s interpretation of a popular gendered fairy tale at the level of peer interaction. Walt Disney’s Cinderella was used in elementary school reading groups to investigate the ways that children understand messages regarding gender and the influence of peer culture on the production of meaning. The findings indicate that gender and gendered expectations were essential to the process of interpretation and the construction of meaning for the children. Gender unified the boys and girls into two distinct groups, particularly around the “girls’ book,” Cinderella. Gender was reinforced along traditional lines in the peer group, serving as a deterrent to the production of alternate interpretations to traditional messages in the text.     

The metaphysics of quantity

A formal theory of quantity T _Q is presented which is realist, Platonist, and syntactically second-order (while logically elementary), in contrast with the existing formal theories of quantity developed within the theory of measurement, which are empiricist, nominalist, and syntactically first-order (while logically non-elementary). T _Q is shown to be formally and empirically adequate as a theory of quantity, and is argued to be scientifically superior to the existing first-order theories of quantity in that it does not depend upon empirically unsupported assumptions concerning existence of physical objects (e.g. that any two actual objects have an actual sum). The theory T _Q supports and illustrates a form of naturalistic Platonism, for which claims concerning the existence and properties of universals form part of natural science, and the distinction between accidental generalizations and laws of nature has a basis in the second-order structure of the world.     

Assessment of the value-attitude orientations of American Indian children

The project was carried out in cooperation with two Sioux Indian reservations and a neighboring Indian boarding school in the American Midwest. An instrument was developed for assessment of the attitude-value orientations of elementary age Indian children. Subscales represent value dimensions upon which Indian and Anglo children can be hypothesized to differ. Heavy participation of Indian people was present at every stage of development of the scales. Factor analysis and analysis of variance data which address construct validity are presented. Rationales are offered in support of the need for development of assessment techniques which are oriented toward, and emerge from, the minority group point of view.     

Sozial-emotionales Lernen mit FAUSTLOS

Maltreatment, sexual and emotional abuse and neglect during childhood contribute to the development of psychic and somatic disorders. Therefore interventions against violence are necessary to support psychological health. The development of social-emotional competences became an elementary part of psychosocial prevention programs. Children with good capacities in problem solving are less at risk to show violent behaviour in difficult emotional conflicts, because they don’t tend to stabilize and compensate their self esteem in these situations. Relevant core dimensions concerning psychological development can be taught systematically in social- emotional learning lessons. Teachers in kindergardens and schools are presenting the series of lessons. A growing number of studies in this field show good effects. In Germany FAUSTLOS has been developed as an evaluated and systematically constructed tool for preventing aggressive behaviour in children visiting kindergardens and elementary schools. During these programs 28 lessons are presented in kindergardens and 51 lessons in elementary schools. Follow-up studies with FAUSTLOS show significant changes in emotional competences and prosocial developments in children.     

A note on monotone likelihood ratio of the total score variable in unidimensional item response theory

This note provides a direct, elementary proof of the fundamental result on monotone likelihood ratio of the total score variable in unidimensional item response theory (IRT). This result is very important for practical measurement in IRT, because it justifies the use of the total score variable to order participants on the latent trait. The proof relies on a basic inequality for elementary symmetric functions which is proved by means of few purely algebraic, straightforward transformations. In particular, flaws in a proof of this result by Huynh [(1994) . A new proof for monotone likelihood ratio for the sum of independent Bernoulli random variables. Psychometrika, 59, 77–79] are pointed out and corrected, and a natural generalization of the fundamental result to non‐linear (quasi‐ordered) latent trait spaces is presented. This may be useful for multidimensional IRT or knowledge space theory, in which the latent ‘ability’ spaces are partially ordered with respect to, for instance, coordinate‐wise vector‐ordering or set‐inclusion, respectively.     

Secularity,gender, and emancipation: thinking through feminist activism and feminist approaches to the secular

In this article, I engage with feminist discussions about secularity, gender, and emancipation. The feminist study of the secular was spurred by interventions of Saba Mahmood [2005. The Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton: Princeton University Press], and can be seen as a critical engagement with at least one basic assumption that underlies much of progressive thinking – that secularism is beneficial for women and LGBTQ subjects. I begin by exploring how the Belgian feminist activist platform Baas Over Eigen Hoofd! (Boss Over One’s Own Head!) builds a locally suited theory and practice of emancipation. I analyse how BOEH! raises questions about gender and secularity. Second, I zoom-out by mapping feminist studies of the secular in Western European contexts, distinguishing various analytical approaches and visions on social-political secular emancipatory alternatives. To conclude, I relate local feminist activism to feminist academic discussions, and argue that there is a continued need for thinking about shared emancipatory futures.     

Schools can improve motivational quality: Profile transitions across early foreign language learning experiences

Elementary school is as much about developing attitudes as competence. With this fact in mind, the Japanese national government established a plan to enhance elementary school students’ motivation for learning English. The success of this program has, however, not been empirically tested. This study aimed to assess the longitudinal, discrete development of Japanese elementary school students’ motivation for learning English as a foreign language. A cohort of 513 Japanese elementary students participated in the study across 2 years of school. Students responded to surveys regarding the quality of their motivation at three time points, and their engagement at two time points. Latent profile analysis followed by latent profile transition analysis was used to assess the sample for latent subgroups. With subgroups established at three time points, a Mover–Stayer model was tested to estimate the movement of students among the subgroups across three time points and 2 years of elementary school education. Three theoretically consistent latent subgroups were observed at each of the time points. Based on theory and past empirical research, the subgroups (presented from least to most adaptive) were labeled: Poor Quality, High Quantity, and Good Quality. Across the three measurements, an overall shift of students to higher quantity and quality motivational subgroups was observed. This study provides evidence that the low-stakes, high-interest approach currently undertaken may have the desired effect of improving students’ motivation to learn across 2 years of schooling. Implications for both practice and national policy are discussed.