The Challenge of Authentic Behavior

The goal of authentic behavior is postulated as an important factor in greater understanding of man as well as in more effective utilization of his potential, particularly in interpersonal relationships. The purposes and criteria for authentic behavior are described. The philosophical and psychological origins of authentic behavior are examined with particular reference to existentialism and humanistic psychology. Suggestions are offered for individual attainment of more authentic behavior. The core concern is the need for seeking greater implicit awareness of experiencing by deriving more felt meaning from experiences that involve both feeling and events or concepts. Such an expanded awareness can lead to the discarding of perceptual distortions and a greater accord between man's nature and the being of the world itself. Emphasis is placed on the serious responsibility for decisions resulting from authentic conduct. Implications of authentic behavior for personal living, for professional functions and for social action are outlined.     

Students' Views on the Value of Psychological Research: A Contribution to Indigenising Psychology in Botswana

The goal of the study was to explore the value that psychology students accredit to psychological research in a country like Botswana where psychology is a relatively new discipline. Forty-five undergraduate students belonging to the first cohort of psychology students at the University of Botswana participated in the study (males = 7, females = 38, age range 18–23 years). Data were obtained from student essays and evaluated with Qualitative Content Analysis. Students were of the view that psychological research should (a) increase knowledge to better understand human beings and the world (epistemological value); (b) create awareness about psychology within society so as to to assist society in combating societal problems (societal value); (c) enhance individuals' understanding of psychology so as to to accept psychology (individual value); and (d) up-date psychological theories to ensure their applicability in present times (theoretical value). Considering students' views could play an important role in indigenising psychology in Botswana.     

西方心理学中的现代主义、后现代主义及其超越

当代西方心理学中存在着现代主义取向和后现代主义取向的对立和冲突。冯特以来的西方心理学流派大多属于现代主义的范畴。现代主义的特征是：(1)重视科学的价值,强调科学的方法;(2)信奉经验主义;(3)个体的中心地位。后现代主义取向的核心是社会建构主义,其主要特征为：(1)批判的倾向,对现代心理学的理论基础进行解构;(2)把社会建构论作为认识论的基础;(3)促进心理学实践的四个转变。尽管两种倾向形成鲜明的对照,但两者也存在着一些共同的方面,从而构成了超越两者的基础。两种取向的超越需要以科学实在论作为元理论的基础,并需要双方互补、合作和开放的态度。     

In conversation with Joseph B. Wheelwright

This article reviews some aspects of successful aging and personality development in later life, discusses some ways of maximizing one's potential at that time, and explains why the social stereotypes of aging are no longer relevant. Psychological and spiritual growth, learning, and creativity are independent of age and often continue until very old age, so that it is a mistake to think of aging as a period of relentless decline. Old age has its own developmental tasks. One can therefore grow into old age and not simply sink into it. Jungian psychology can make an important contribution to understanding the importance of this time of life for both the individual and society.     

Commitment,Cold War,and the battles of the self: Thomas Schelling on behavior control

Economist Nobelist Thomas C. Schelling (1921–2016) is known for his contribution to the analysis of international conflict and many see him as the Cold Warrior par excellence. At a time of great uncertainties and dangers, Schelling combined a deep understanding of strategic analysis, a detailed knowledge of US commitments around the world and an inimitable talent for dissecting everyday behavior, which made him a think tank all on his own. When he turned to the analysis of bargaining in the mid-1950s, one question dominated policy discussions: “How to demonstrate the US commitment to the ‘free world’”? Schelling answered unequivocally: By restricting one's choices so as to shift others' expectations and thereby influence their behavior in the desired direction. By the mid-1970s, after he had broken with the US administration and joined the Committee on Substance Abuse and Habitual Behavior, Schelling transposed the tactics deployed in international conflict to the analysis of individuals trying to achieve self-control. In the process, he reproduced the logic of military conflict at the level of the self. The view of a conflicted self itself comprised of two selves made restricted choice the daily routine of individuals who wish to avoid the negative consequences of their present behavior in the future while it promised those who enjoy unbounded freedom of choice an unsettling future.     

体验的心理机制研究

体验是个体以身体为中介,以“行或思”为手段,以知情相互作用为典型特征,作用于人的对象对人产生意义时而引发的不断生成的居身状态。体验的心理机制研究一般包括对象的呈现、意义的建构、身体的变化、体验的形成,以及体验的延展五个环节。从存在的基本形态看,体验可分为外显体验和内隐体验两种。体验及其心理机制的深入研究,对未来的情绪心理学、认知心理学、文化心理学,以及本土心理学的进一步发展都有着重要的促进作用。     

Towards Understanding the Psychology of the Filipino

This article describes the development of a new consciousness in Philippine psychology called "Sikolohiyang Pilipino" (Filipino Psychology). It attempts to give national form and substance to the scientific discipline of psychology by critically examining the strong influence of American psychological models in Philippine psychology and explains how the practical implications of "Sikolohiyang Pilipino" in therapy differ from Western methods. It presents an alternative framework of looking at human behavior particularly in the context of non-Western cultures and identifies key concepts in understanding the Filipino's mind, personality, and behavior. It elaborates on indigenous research methods that are more relevant and appropriate to Philippine realities.     

红色的心理效应:现象与机制研究述评

红色是自然界和人类社会最常见的颜色之一,它对人类心理与行为的影响受到心理学家的关注.2005年发表在Nature上关于红色队服增强奥运选手竞赛成绩的研究报告,引发了一系列红色心理效应研究.本文从生理指标、行为观察、认知、语言文化、情绪、态度等多个角度综述了红色心理效应的现象和机制,并提出“情境假说”来解释红色对心理与行为的影响.综述表明,红色的心理效应缘于其在不同情境下联结着不同的心理意义.这些联结受先天遗传和后天环境的共同影响.红色与心理意义的联结诱发了特定的心理状态,从而影响个体的心理与行为.颜色对心理的影响及其机制,已经成为颜色科学基础与应用研究的前沿领域之一.     

试析现代西方心理学的文化转向

西方心理学正在展现出对文化影响日渐增加的关注。这种文化转向既有科学哲学和历史的原因,也受到世界范围内心理学本土化运动的影响。文化转向的主要表现是：(1)对心理学自然科学模式的反思与诘难;(2)多元文化心理学的兴起;(3)跨文化心理学面临的批评及其转变;(4)认知心理学、发展心理学和健康心理学等分支领域对文化影响的关注。作者认为,文化的转向对于西方心理学的发展具有积极的意义。     

POUR UN PROGRAMME INTERNATIONAL DE RECHERCHES PSYCHOLOGIQUES

For an international program of psychological studies. — We live at a time of a rapid accumulation of psychological data as contrasted with disproportionately slow development of psychology as a scientific system. Progress in the practical utilization of psychological research findings appears equally inadequate in the face of the quantitative explosion of the research. Having established a multitude of concrete facts, we are unable to agree on any but a few general statements. Each area of psychology has developed a host of “miniature theories”, but there is little, if any, agreement among them. The deplorable theoretical state makes it equally difficult to establish a valid hierarchy of research problems that might enable us to discriminate between fundamental and secondary issues. The relative isolation of the “miniature theories” has led to an atomization of research into “miniature projects”, or else into mutually irrelevant topics. In effect, the research potential of psychology is being largely dissipated. The history of psychology has recorded many attempts to develop great theoretical systems, of which three proved most successful. These were : the associationist psychology of either the S-S type, based on the idea of mental connections, or the S-R type; the Gestalt psychology based on the idea of structure; and psychoanalysis, based on the idea of dynamic tendencies. Each has greatly contributed to the development of psychological studies without being able, however, to account for all by then established facts. The net effect has been a general disenchantment with theory. Nevertheless, the fundamental ideas underlying these systems have come to be generally acknowledged. Attempts to develop new entities from various pieces of these systems have produced numerous theoretical constructs of an eclectic character, which only increased the atomization of psychology. The growing atomization of psychology has been a source of concern for many scholars. At the xviith Congress of Psychology in Washington, this situation was extensively discussed by G. Allport. In continuation of his ideas, it may be suggested that there seems to be real prospects of defeating the atomization of psychology, and of integrating it into a coherent system, provided psychology is approached as a science of man. This would require us to abandon the heritage of Hume's philosophy, which has caused us to view psychology as a science of phenomena, processes, reactions or behaviors, while disregarding the fact that these are merely manifestations of man's goal-oriented and organized activity, resulting from his continuous effort to adjust his relationships with the environment. Such a reorientation would enable us to establish a definite hierarchy of problems, with the main emphasis resting on the structure of man's activity and the mechanisms by which this activity is orientated and organized. As a result, the gap between psychological theory and practical application would be narrowed down, a circumstance of great significance for the social prestige of psychology as a science. An organized effort is needed to overcome the present atomization in psychology. A particularly great responsibility rests on the International Union of Psychological Science. The present author suggests the following objectives for the IUPS in this respect : further efforts should be made to improve the methods of scientific information; a co-operation should be sought with other international institutions responsible for research on man; specially interesting appears to be the UNESCO initiative to investigate the basic development trends in the sciences of man; an international program of scientific research work in psychology should be drawn up.     

The essentialist aspect of naive theories

Recent work on children's inferences concerning biological and chemical categories has suggested that children (and perhaps adults) are essentialists - a view known as psychological essentialism. I distinguish three varieties of psychological essentialism and investigate the ways in which essentialism explains the inferences for which it is supposed to account. Essentialism succeeds in explaining the inferences, I argue, because it attributes to the child belief in causal laws connecting category membership and the possession of certain characteristic appearances and behavior. This suggests that the data will be equally well explained by a non-essentialist hypothesis that attributes belief in the appropriate causal laws to the child, but makes no claim as to whether or not the child represents essences. I provide several reasons to think that this non-essentialist hypothesis is in fact superior to any version of the essentialist hypothesis.     

Consciousness as a guide to personal persistence

Mentalistic (or Lockean) accounts of personal identity are normally formulated in terms of causal relations between psychological states such as beliefs, memories, and intentions. In this paper we develop an alternative (but still Lockean) account of personal identity, based on phenomenal relations between experiences. We begin by examining a notorious puzzle case due to Bernard Williams, and extract two lessons from it: first, that Williams's puzzle can be defused by distinguishing between the psychological and phenomenal approaches, second, that so far as personal identity is concerned, it is phenomenal rather than psychological continuity that matters. We then consider different ways in which the phenomenal approach may be developed, and respond to a number of objections.

That with which the consciousness of this present thinking thing can join itself, makes the same person, and is one self with it, and with nothing else; and so attributes to itself and owns all the actions of that thing, as its own, as far as that consciousness reaches, and no farther; as every one who reflects will perceive.

Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding [II.xxvii.17]     

心理学研究中的还原主义问题考察

还原主义是主导心理学研究的非常重要的理论原则。其核心思想是认为,世界是分层的梯级系统,可以通过已知的、低层级的事物或理论来解释与说明未知的、高层级的事物或理论。实证的科学心理学在自己的起步的阶段,曾经把物理学当成了自己的榜样,当成了自己的标准。心理学在解说人的心理行为的过程中,就把心理行为的规律归结为物理主义的规律。生物决定论观点认为人的心理或行为主要受人的生物因素所决定,人类的社会行为、人格乃至社会生活的基本方面都决定于这些个体、群体、种族或人种的生物因素。还原论与还原方法既有联系又存在着质的差别。还原论在心理学的研究中有其合理的地方。这也就可以区分出所谓的物理主义的还原,化学分析的还原、生物决定的还原、生理机制的还原、社会决定的还原、文化制约的还原,等等。在表面上看,心理学研究中的还原主义是一种简单化的或简约化的研究处理。但是,在深层上看,心理学研究却借助于还原论而形成了自己的研究框架。并且,这也是将各自不同学科的相关的探索转换成为了心理学的学术性资源。     

Norman Elrod (November 22, 1928 – July 01, 2002) unity and conflict of opposites

Abstract

The totalitarian society may appear from the psychological point of view as an emotionally immature society, consisting mostly of emotionally immature individuals whose inner world is ruled by the inner totalitarian objects—mighty authorities which are internalized by every individual in the course of his/her socialization. It seems that early outer parental objects have a totalitarian character for the child, because the child perceives them as mighty from its dependent position. The totalitarian objects, inner and outer, are intrusive, they have a tendency to own the other and to manipulate him, and they have no respect for individuality and for social and individual differences. Instead of individual values they strive for the establishment of an ideology, obligatory for all. The totalitarian objects are threatening but it is possible to seek safety in their shadow, if one identifies with them. The author presents four short clinical illustrations of totalitarian objects operating in the psyche. He shows how these pathological inner objects create pathological, but also some healthier organizations of personality—the fates of the totalitarian objects.     

Metanoia

SUMMARY

The author draws on her experience working with individual men who are violent to their partners to think about the problem of international violence. A parallel is drawn between a man's feeling of “entitlement” to forcefully keep his partner “in line” and feelings of national entitlement to engage in violence to force one group's agenda on another. The differences between morals and taboos are discussed underscoring the community value of that which becomes socially and ethically “unthinkable.”     

中国区域跨文化心理学理论探索与实证研究

中国区域跨文化心理学是以文化学、社会学、人类学、人文地理学、社会心理学、跨文化心理学等学科理论为基础, 比较研究中国城乡区域、地理区域、历史区域、行政区域、生态区域等文化区域居民的个体心理和群体心理共同性和差异性的学科。采用系列问卷, 在2004年和2009年先后三次对甘肃省河西、河东汉族为主的地级市属各个县市区城乡居民以及蒙拢、湘拢的跨省域居民进行抽样调查。结果表明, 区域文化同一性和差异性以及具体的生态环境、生活方式、经济发展、政治体制、社会结构、教育水平、风俗习惯、风土人情等差异, 是影响区域居民心理健康、性格特质、社会态度、刻板印象等心理机能的重要变量。今后研究将着力进行学科理论完善和省际、县际比较研究, 更好地运用田野工作等方法, 揭示区域文化与心理行为之间的相互关系和作用机制, 形成理论模型, 为建设和谐社会提供理论依据。     

Extracting implicit theories about the risk of coercive control in romantic relationships

People readily make attributions about the likely behavior of others, based on very limited information. We exploited this tendency to assess people's sensitivity to personological and social‐circumstantial evidence of risk of coercive control in romantic relationships, by unobtrusively varying information about a fictitious couple in a between‐groups design and asking viewers to make predictions about the feelings and behavior of the three characters–a man, his girlfriend, and his sister. Key features of the story were systematically altered to elicit attributions of the man's aggressive and jealous inclinations to see if people are sensitive to the psychological link between sexually proprietary inclinations and risk of violence. The story manipulations were effective in eliciting attributions of the man's aggressive inclinations, of the woman's polyandrous inclinations, and of the man's likely jealousy. As expected, people predicted that an aggressive and jealous man would be likely to use violence and other controlling actions against his girlfriend.     

Survival from the Brain's Perspective

The concern about man's harmful impact on the environment focuses attention on the external environment, i.e., the real world out there, which may not survive in a form to support life. But supporting life of an individual is in the hands of that individual's brain, which is primarily concerned with various needs of the internal environment, also referred to as the self. Confronted with diverse and often competing needs, the brain has evolved a complexity in man, which makes it doubtful that any one collective strategy may be effective in preserving the external environment.     

The Law Says Corporations are Persons,but Psychology Knows Better

Psychologists interested in law and public policy have begun to examine the nature of corporations in American society and the serious consequences of corporate irresponsibility. The dominant trend identifies areas where corporate behavior falls short of ethical standards or leads to unacceptably risky decisions and suggests ways to reform corporations or the laws that regulate them. This well-intentioned approach is consistent with psychology's liberal reformist tendency. Unfortunately, it neither challenges the flawed psychological underpinnings of the legal fiction that corporations are legal persons nor compensates sufficiently for the dynamics of individual behavior in corporate settings. Instead, psychologists should advocate fundamental restructuring of our corporate society.