LOOKING GOOD, SOUNDING GOOD: FEMININITY IDEOLOGY AND ADOLESCENT GIRLS' MENTAL HEALTH

This study used a feminist psychodynamic developmental framework to test the hypothesis that internalizing conventional femininity ideologies in two domains—inauthenticity in relationships and body objectification—is associated with early adolescent girls' mental health. One hundred forty-eight eighth-grade girls completed measures of femininity ideology, self-esteem, depression, and demographic characteristics. In the first part of this study, we refined the Adolescent Femininity Ideology Scale originally developed by Tolman and Porche (2000) . In the second part, we used structural equation modeling to test models linking femininity ideology to mental health. Results revealed that body objectification, and to a lesser extent, inauthenticity in relationships, accounted for half of the variance in depression and over two-thirds of the variance in self-esteem in a critical period of development for adolescent girls. The importance of a feminist psychodynamic developmental framework for identifying and understanding salient dimensions of female adolescence is discussed.     

THE ADOLESCENT FEMININITY IDEOLOGY SCALE

This article describes the development and validation of the Adolescent Femininity Ideology Scale (AFIS) through three studies with racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse early, middle, and late adolescent girls. Distinguished from feminine personality trait and feminine gender role, the concept of femininity ideology represents the individual-level construct that links individual females to social constructions of femininity. The AFIS measures the extent to which adolescent girls have internalized or resisted two negative conventions of femininity in two psychological domains: experience of self in relationship with others and relationship with one's body. Grounded in girls' own words, the 20-item scale is comprised of two subscales reflecting these domains. The AFIS has acceptable internal consistency and temporal stability. We demonstrate construct and concurrent validity, as well as discriminant validity from the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bern, 1981) and the Attitudes Towards Women Scale for Adolescents (Galambos, Petersen, Richards, & Gitelson, 1985). We discuss the promise and limits of this new measure of gender ideology for adolescent girls.     

Fighting like a girl fighting like a guy: gender identity, ideology, and girls at early adolescence

In this chapter we explore the phenomenon of "girls fighting like guys" by listening to adolescent girls' justification for physical fighting with other girls. We argue that physical girlfighting is a particular kind of gendered performance--a performance of identity that expresses, at least in part, an answer to the question, "Who am I?"--that both perpetuates and challenges the usual notions of masculinity and femininity and the differential power associated with these discourses. We present a sociocultural approach to identity that we believe not only holds promise for helping us to understand girl-fighting behavior but also highlights the clear interrelationship between social identity and personal identity. We conclude by highlighting several implications of this analysis for those who work with girls (and boys) in educational and clinical settings.     

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEXUAL SELF-CONCEPT INVENTORY FOR EARLY ADOLESCENT GIRLS

The Sexual Self-Concept Inventory (SSCI) was developed to assess sexual self-concept in an ethnically diverse sample of urban early adolescent girls. Three scales (Sexual Arousability, Sexual Agency, and Negative Sexual Affect) were shown to be distinct and reliable dimensions of girls' sexual self-concepts. Validity was established through comparisons with established instruments. Sexual Arousability and Sexual Agency were associated with positive sexual self- esteem, positive future orientation toward sex, intentions to engage in intercourse, and lower levels of sexual experience. Negative Sexual Affect was associated with stronger abstinence attitudes and lack of intentions or orientation toward sex in the near future. The results indicate that the SSCI constitutes a valid means of assessing early adolescent girls' views of their sexuality and sexual behavior and may be of use in studies of health and risk-related decision making.     

MEDIA CONTRIBUTIONS TO AFRICAN AMERICAN GIRLS' FOCUS ON BEAUTY AND APPEARANCE: EXPLORING THE CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL OBJECTIFICATION

The media are dominated by images of women as sex objects whose value is based on their appearance. These portrayals can potentially limit girls' self-perceptions and influence their attitudes regarding the importance of appearance. However, relatively little is known about how African American adolescent girls are affected by these images. Using data from a survey of 176 African American adolescent girls (mean age = 15), this project examined associations between Black media use and African American girls' focus on beauty and appearance. Results suggest that both exposure to and identification with portrayals of Black women as sex objects contribute to African American adolescent girls emphasizing the importance of appearance in their own lives and for girls in general. When all the media variables were tested together in hierarchical regression analyses, identification with favorite television character, identification with more objectifying female music artists, and identification with less objectifying female artists emerged as the more consistent predictors of the outcomes examined. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for girls' overall development.     

Other than obedient: Girls' constructions of doctors and treatment regimes for anorexia nervosa

This paper examines how teenage girls diagnosed with and being treated for anorexia nervosa in hospital construct their anorexia, their identity as patients, medical authority and their doctors. In‐depth interviews were conducted with 25 adolescent girls in two large, metropolitan hospitals in Australia. Using a discourse analytic approach informed by poststructural theory, we elucidate how girls perform as patients, contest the authoritative position of doctors and deploy popular, taken‐for‐granted discourses of femininity to resist treatment regimes and the construction of themselves by others as ‘anorexic’ and ‘sick’. Our analysis indicates that medical discourses in the hospital do not necessarily define or delimit girls' constructions of themselves, of anorexia, treatment or their relationships with doctors. The paper argues that understanding and validating girls' perspectives is essential in building and maintaining a therapeutic alliance in hospitals. We conclude by discussing how insights from poststructural analysis can assist in improving hospital practice. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of adolescent girls' life concerns and leisure activities on body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and self-esteem.

The aim of this study was to situate adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and self-esteem in the context of their life concerns and leisure activities. Questionnaires containing measures of life concerns, leisure activities, body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and self-esteem were administered to 306 girls with a mean age of 16 years. It was found that although academic success and intelligence were rated as the most important life concerns, an emphasis on slimness was most strongly linked to body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and global self-esteem. An emphasis on popularity with girls also was related to body dissatisfaction, and hours spent watching television were related to lower self-esteem. In contrast, emphasis on sport seemed to serve a protective function. It was concluded that adolescent girls who have a high concern for slimness should be assisted in decreasing this emphasis in order to improve their general well-being.     

The practice of using makeup: A consumption ritual of adolescent girls

The consumption of makeup by teenage girls may represent a ritual critical to the rite of passage to adulthood. To explore this issue, depth interviews were conducted with 25 teenage girls in France, ages 14–18 years, about their makeup use. The data in this exploratory study suggest that putting on makeup is a ritual that plays a critical role for adolescent girls separating from their childhood and transitioning toward adulthood. Evidence of ritual dimensions (repetition, symbolic, codification, and dramaturgy) was found. The data further suggest that the traditional rite of passage associated with primitive societies is useful in identifying ritual teenage girls' makeup consumption in modern society, although with some differences. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

DIMENSIONS OF DESIRE

This study provides an example of how feminist psychology can bridge qualitative and quantitative methods while keeping lived experience at the center of an inquiry. The goal of the study was to begin to understand adolescent girls' experiences of sexual desire. We describe three separate and synergistically related analyses of interviews with 30 adolescent girls. We begin with a qualitative analysis of their voiced experiences of sexual desire; follow with a quantitative analysis of the differences in how urban and suburban girls describe these experiences, assessing the role of reported sexual violation; and conclude with a second qualitative analysis exploring the interaction between social location and reported sexual violation. These three analyses enabled us to understand qualitatively and to quantify interrelated dimensions of desire as described by adolescent girls.     

A comparison of the psychological profiles of teenage mothers and their nonmother peers: II. Responses to a set of TAT cards.

In Part I of this investigation (Oz, Tari, & Fine, 1992), it was found that, in comparison with nonmother peers, teenage mothers demonstrated a higher degree of ego development. This was in contradiction to most of the literature on the subject. In the second part of the study, the Thematic Apperception Test was employed to examine defenses and motivations which may impact upon the young girls' functioning within family and heterosexual relationships. Results confirmed reports in the literature which have indicated that adolescent mothers attempt to resolve autonomy-dependence conflicts in heterosexual relationships, whereas nonmothers do so within the family of origin. Consistent with their enhanced ego maturity, teenage mothers were more likely to confront their conflicts than were nonmothers. However, whereas nonmothers reacted to environmental stressors by rejecting the source of the stress, teenage mothers tended to react with self-abasement. It is recommended that further research be directed toward uncovering the emotional and cognitive resources of teenage mothers rather than focusing on their more obvious weaknesses.     

The impact of mental health problems and religiosity on African-American girls' HIV-risk

We investigated the relationship between religiosity, mental health problems, and two sexual risk behaviors-condom use and number of partners. Participants were 80 sexually active African American girls in psychiatric care and their caregivers. Results indicated differential relationships, depending on parent versus youth report. Mother's religiosity was positively related to girls' condom use and not to girls' number of partners. Controlling for other predictors in the models, mother's religiosity explained as much as 15% of the variance in girls' condom use. Whereas parent and adolescent reports of girls' depression/anxiety and rule-breaking were positively associated with number of partners, reports of aggression were associated with having fewer partners. Neither parent nor youth reports of girls' mental health problems were associated with condom use. Controlling for other predictors in the models, girls' mental health problems accounted for as much as 31% of the variance in number of partners. Findings underscore the importance of adopting an ecological framework to understand both the risk and promotive factors for sexual risk taking among troubled girls. The roles of specific aspects of psychopathology and religiosity in relation to sexual risk behavior among African American girls in psychiatric care are discussed.     

Effects of body fat on weight concerns, dating, and sexual activity: a longitudinal analysis of black and white adolescent girls.

Using data from a 2-year longitudinal study of 200 Black and White adolescent girls (mean age was 13.8 years at study entry), the authors investigated the implications of differences in body fat for dating and sexual activity and the implications of heterosexual activity for dieting and weight concerns. Among White girls, and Black girls with college-educated mothers, more body fat was associated with a lower probability of dating, even among nonobese girls. However, dating and sexual experience were unrelated to subsequent dieting and weight concerns. For both Blacks and Whites, body fat was the key determinant of dieting, weight dissatisfaction, and eating concerns. These findings indicate that adolescent girls' concerns about weight have a basis in real experiential differences, and efforts to promote healthy attitudes and eating habits may be more effective if the experiential implications of weight differences are taken into account.     

Inadequacy of sex knowledge of adolescents: implications for counselling and sex education

There is abundant evidence relating to the paucity of sex-oriented knowledge by the average adolescent across cultures. Investigations have demonstrated that such sex learning, generally colored with misconceptions and misinformation, is obtained almost entirely from the peer group since cultural inhibitions and puritan attitudes often prevent open discussions of the subject of sex with teachers, parents or other adults. There is also every indication that adolescents' natural interest in and preoccupation with human sexuality is on the increase, aided by the current massive circulation of pornographic literature, adult examples of sexual irresponsibility and the strong desire to conform with peer norms. This paper therefore suggests that if premature teenage pregnancy as well as social, emotional and psychological consequences of teenage genital exploration is to be avoided or controlled, then a comprehensive program of sex education and sex counselling for boys and girls in the second decade of the life cycle is overdue.     

Adolescents' time perspective.

201 boys and girls in Grade 11 were administered the Time Perspective Questionnaire, which assesses the type of events students typically generate when asked to think of the past and future and their temporal extension. Analysis confirms little difference between adolescent boys' and girls' time perspectives, thereby suggesting considerable convergence has occurred in boys' and girls' temporal expectations.     

Body image and eating attitudes among adolescent Chinese girls in Hong Kong

The study investigated the relation between body image and eating attitudes among adolescent girls in Hong Kong. A sample of 358 senior secondary school girls completed the measures assessing body-part satisfaction and behaviors associated with eating. Analysis indicated that even though only 4.8% of the girls were overweight, 85.16% desired to weigh less. These Chinese teenage girls were concerned about their weight, and the desire for slimness was widespread. Correlations indicated that higher Body Mass Index was associated with lower satisfaction with weight. Lower scores on weight satisfaction were associated with higher scores on attitudes of dieting and food preoccupation.     

Understanding the Sex Difference in Vulnerability to Adolescent Depression: An Examination of Child and Parent Characteristics

This study examined sex differences in risk factors associated with adolescent depression in a large sample of boys and girls. Moderation and mediation explanatory models of the sex difference in likelihood of depression were examined. Findings indicate that the factors associated with depression in adolescent boys and girls are quite similar. All of the variables considered were associated with depression, but sex did not moderate the impact of vulnerability factors on likelihood of depression diagnosis. However, negative self-perceptions in the domains of achievement, global self-worth, and physical appearance partially mediated the relationship between sex and depression. Further, girls had higher levels of positive self-perceptions in interpersonal domains that acted as suppressors and reduced the likelihood of depression in girls. These findings suggest that girls' higher incidence of depression is due in part to their higher levels of negative self-perceptions, whereas positive interpersonal factors serve to protect them from depressive episodes.     

Adolescent Girls’ Sexual Empowerment: Two Feminists Explore the Concept

Although all feminists tend to value empowered female sexuality, feminists often disagree, sometimes heatedly so, about the definition of and path to empowered sexuality among adolescent girls. In this theoretical paper, two feminists, who have previously expressed differing perspectives regarding adolescent girls’ sexual empowerment (Lamb 2010a, b; Peterson 2010), discuss their disagreements and attempt to find some common ground in their viewpoints on girls’ sexuality. A critical question related to sexual empowerment is whether empowerment includes a subjective sense of efficacy, desire, and pleasure. In other words, are girls sexually empowered if they feel that they are empowered? The authors identify three themes that make answering this question particularly challenging—age differences, exposure to sexualized media, and the pressure to please a partner. Despite these challenges, the authors identify several points of consensus, including agreeing that adequate sexuality education and media literacy education are vital to optimizing adolescent girls’ sexual empowerment.     

Female Adolescents, Sexual Empowerment and Desire: A Missing Discourse of Gender Inequity

In this commentary, I offer a response to Lamb & Peterson (2011). I base these comments on the feminist scholarship on adolescent girls’ healthy sexuality that Lamb (2010a) critiqued in the first of this series. I address and redress several of her concerns by providing the context and history of my own research and recovering the meanings of desire, pleasure and subjectivity as they appeared in this body of work. I then engage Lamb and Peterson’s points of consensus about the role of sexual empowerment in adolescent girls’ healthy sexuality by 1) positioning sexualization as more than a context; 2) identifying a missing discourse of gender inequity as a central issue in their discussion; and 3) explaining how the use of theory and interpretation in feminist research methods is necessary for and distinct from a surface reading of narratives of lived experience. Finally, I will provide examples of some alternative paths for supporting healthy adolescent women’s sexuality that extend beyond school-based sex education and media literacy into alternative engagements with girls through technology, media activism and participatory practices.     

TEAM SPORTS ACHIEVEMENT AND SELF-ESTEEM DEVELOPMENT AMONG URBAN ADOLESCENT GIRLS

In this study we investigate the contribution of achievement in team sports to adolescent girls' self-esteem development. Adolescent girls ( N = 247) from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds were surveyed as part of a larger study investigating the development of poor urban youth. Participants responded to items tapping global self-esteem, team sports achievement, and athletic self-evaluations. The results of hierarchical regression analyses indicate that girls' team sports achievement experiences in early adolescence are positively associated with self-esteem in middle adolescence. This relationship is partially mediated by team sports self-evaluations. Applications of these findings to the development of interventions designed to enhance the self-esteem of young women and girls are discussed.