The perceptual factor

A further study of the perceptual factor, previously isolated in a factor analysis of a battery of fifty-six tests, is made in a manner designed also to determine whether the same seven primaries would be found in a different population of subjects and with another battery of tests. The tests are described, and the results of the analysis are given in detail. Much attention is given to the matter of the orthogonality of primary factors and to their psychological meaningfulness.     

Experimental study of simple structure

A battery of thirty-six tests was given to a group of high-school seniors. The factorial analysis reveals essentially the same primary factors that were found in previous studies. The test battery reveals a simple structure.     

Tests of human olfactory function: Principal components analysis suggests that most measure a common source of variance

It is not known whether nominally different olfactory tests actually measure dissimilar perceptual attributes. In this study, we administered nine olfactory tests, including tests of odor identification, discrimination, detection, memory, and suprathreshold intensity and pleasantness perception, to 97 healthy subjects. Aprincipal components analysis performed on the intercorrelation matrix revealed four meaningful components. The first was comprised of strong primary loadings from most of the olfactory test measures, whereas the second was comprised of primary loadings from intensity ratings given to a set of suprathreshold odorant concentrations. The third and fourth components had primary loadings that reflected, respectively, mean suprathreshold pleasantness ratings and a response bias measure derived from a yes/no odor identification signal detection task. In an effort to adjust for potential confounding influences of age, gender, smoking, and years of schooling on the component structure, a matrix of residuals from a multiple regression analysis, which included these variables, was also analyzed. A similar component pattern emerged. Overall, these findings suggest, in healthy subjects spanning a wide age range, that (1) a number of nominally distinct tests of olfactory function are measuring a common source of variance, and (2) some suprathreshold odor intensity and pleasantness rating tests may be measuring sources of variance different from this common source.     

Some Properties Of Three Factor Contribution Matrices

Some properties of three matrices which have been proposed as quantitative bases for factor interpretation are discussed. The first of these contains as elements the covariances of the tests with weighted factor scores. Interpretations of the row sums and column sums of this matrix are given and its independence of the primary factor-reference vector distinction is demonstrated. Two matrices of part correlations are shown to be proportional by columns to the primary factor pattern (and thus to the reference vector structure). One of these matrices is shown to be equal to the reference vector structure.     

Relating tests given to different samples

Suppose a collection of standard tests is given to all subjects in a random sample, but a different new test is given to each group of subjects in nonoverlapping subsamples. A simple method is developed for displaying the information that the data set contains about the correlational structure of the new tests. This is possible to some extent, even though each subject takes only one new test. The method uses plausible values of the partial correlations among the new tests given the standard tests in order to generate plausible simple correlations among the new tests and plausible multiple correlations between composites of the new tests and the standard tests. The real data example included suggests that the method can be useful in practical problems.     

不同年级学生执行功能发展水平研究

工作记忆、抑制控制及认知灵活性是执行功能的主要成分。以小学三年级、五年级,初中二年级、高中二年级320名学生为被试,研究了他们执行功能各成分的发展。结果发现:工作记忆广度、抑制控制、认知灵活性的发展随着年级(或年龄)的增长而发展,各年级之间存在显著差异。     

6～11岁儿童执行功能发展研究

以168名6~11岁儿童为被试,使用9种执行功能任务研究了儿童三种执行功能成分的发展,三种执行功能是,抑制(Inhibition)、转换(Shifting)和刷新(Updating),结果发现:整个儿童阶段,三种执行功能一直表现出随年龄递增而增长的趋势;不同的执行功能表现出不同的发展速率,其中抑制控制大约在6~7岁表现出一个快速的增长期,记忆刷新从7岁到10岁一直呈线性增长,转换表现出两个快速增长期,第一个快速增长则发生在7~8岁之间,第二个快速增长则发生在9-10岁之间,三种执行功能的发展趋势到大约10岁后趋于平缓,10岁和11岁儿童的表现没有显著性差异;所有执行功能任务测量中没有发现性别主效应,年龄和性别的交互作用不显著。     

The effects of selection in factor analysis

Factorial results are affected by selection of subjects and by selection of tests. It is shown that the addition of one or more tests which are linear combinations of tests already in a battery causes the addition of one or more incidental factors. If the given test battery reveals a simple structure, the addition of tests which are linear combinations of the given tests leaves the structure unaffected unless the number of incidental factors is so large that the common factors become indeterminate.     

不同年级学生抑制控制研究

从小学三年级、五年级、初中二年级、高中二年级中,挑选被试各80人,进行抑制控制测量。结果发现：（1）抑制控制力的发展随着年级的增长而发展。（2）各年级学生的两项抑制控制测试成绩与语文、数学成绩有较高的正或负相关。结论：抑制控制力与学生的学业成绩关系密切,即抑制控制是有效学习的监控系统。     

Determining a simple structure when loadings for certain tests are known

A rigorous and an approximate solution are found for the problem: Given a primary trait matrix forn tests andr ₁ traits, and a matrix for the samen tests andr ₂ reference axes, to discover the transformation which will transform the second matrix into the first, or primary trait matrix. Formulas for determining the limits of the effect of using the approximate solution are presented. The method is applied to a set of twenty hypothetical tests, defined by their loadings on four orthogonal primary traits. After factoring the inter-correlations of these variables by Thurstone's centroid method, approximating the diagonals, the original hypothetical matrix is reproduced with a root mean square discrepancy of .014 by assuming as known the primary trait loadings of only the first eight tests. The method is applied to the results of factoring two batteries of 14 tests, having 8 tests in common, to give the factor loadings of the two batteries on the same reference axes. The method provides a means of comparing directly and quantitatively the results of two different factor studies, provided they have tests in common, and of testing the stability of simple structure under changes in the battery. The relations of the method here developed to certain problems in multiple correlation are shown.     

Regression in the Service of the Ego: A Case Study

A study was made of a 41 year old woman who was given psychological tests at the beginning of a five-year period of psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy. From extensive material gathered from her therapist it was clear that: (a) Her pathology did not extend beyond the neurotic range; (b) she was a highly creative individual. Thus, it was of interest to note that her Rorschach contained many responses involving blatant primary process thinking. While such responses would be taken ordinarily as indicating a thinking disorder and consequently severe pathology, in this case they were seen as reflecting “regression in the service of the ego.” This led to a discussion of how this adaptive regression can be differentiated from pathological regression in psycho-diagnostic testing and to a consideration of some theoretical issues relating to primary process thinking.     

Facilitation of retention by white noise.

Second and fifth grade subjects were given three verbal tasks: serial, free recall, or paired-associate learning. Retention tests were administered immediately after the acquisition phase or following a long delay. Half the subjects were exposed to a 2-min period of bursts of white noise (arousal) immediately prior to the retention test. The finding of primary interest was that white noise produced substantial improvement in performance relative to a control condition. This effect may be more pronounced for long-term memory than for short-term memory. Although older children exhibited better long-term memory than younger subjects, no interaction of age with arousal condition was observed.     

The Relationship Between Assessment and Psychotherapy

The many arguments, pro and con, about the usefulness and roles of diagnosis in general, and a psychological test battery in particular, can be settled only with reference to particular tests, a particular tester, particular patients, with reference to particular questions, in a particular context. Psychologists need to establish the usefulness of tests in cost-effective ways and demonstrate how tests provide a means of studying the mind. It follows that all psychotherapists should be able to use the tests, as all physiologists should be able to use a microscope. The rule of thumb that therapists should not give tests to their patients is unnecessary, though it is preferable that the tests be given early in the relationship, and that patients have the opportunity to explore their reactions to the procedure. To maximize the usefulness of tests given by someone who is not the patient's therapist, the test report should be designed as a means of persuasion toward therapeutic action more than a passive report of findings. An outline for test report writing is suggested. Finally, the use of tests helps elucidate the many factors that contribute to change through psychotherapy.     

The relationship between assessment and psychotherapy

The many arguments, pro and con, about the usefulness and roles of diagnosis in general, and a psychological test battery in particular, can be settled only with reference to particular tests, a particular tester, particular patients, with reference to particular questions, in a particular context. Psychologists need to establish the usefulness of tests in cost-effective ways and demonstrate how tests provide a means of studying the mind. It follows that all psychotherapists should be able to use the tests, as all physiologists should be able to use a microscope. The rule of thumb that therapists should not give tests to their patients is unnecessary, though it is preferable that the tests be given early in the relationship, and that patients have the opportunity to explore their reactions to the procedure. To maximize the usefulness of tests given by someone who is not the patient's therapist, the test report should be designed as a means of persuasion toward therapeutic action more than a passive report of findings. An outline for test report writing is suggested. Finally, the use of tests helps elucidate the many factors that contribute to change through psychotherapy.     

A method of construction of auditory stimulus patterns for use in cross-modal and intramodal matching tests

Techniques for constructing auditory stimulus patterns in tests of cross-modal and intramodal matching ability are discussed. An example of a set of tests is given, and the method of construction for the auditory stimuli is described.     

Order effects in belief updating with consistent and inconsistent evidence

The current study tests for the presence of differential order effects in evaluation tasks with consistent and inconsistent evidence as predicted by the Hogarth and Einhorn (1992) belief-adjustment model. The results, based on both between-subjects and within-subjects experiments, demonstrate that there were significant recency effects with inconsistent evidence as predicted, larger recency effects when the inconsistent evidence was farther apart in subjective value as predicted, and significant recency effects even when subjects were given training designed to both help them understand the task as completely as possible and to be better able to assess the pieces of evidence. By including a within-subjects design, we were able to demonstrate that the difference in subjective value between two pieces of evidence is the primary factor influencing the magnitude of the recency effect, regardless of whether the evidence is consistent or inconsistent. This latter finding is unique and contrary to previous research and theory.     

Acquired flavour preferences: Contextual control of adaptation-level effects

This experiment investigated the role of context in the expression of conditioned flavour preferences. Rats were trained on a mixture of almond and sucrose and were then given intermixed exposures to almond in one context (Context A) and to sucrose in a second context (Context S). Finally, choice tests were given in both contexts, with one group given almond-versus-water tests and the other almond + sucrose-versus-sucrose tests. Preference for almond over water was greater in Context A than in Context S. Conversely, preference for almond + sucrose over sucrose was greater in Context S than in Context A. These results suggest that the perceived sweetness of a flavour depends on the context in which it is presented and confirm that expression of a flavour preference depends on the type of test employed.     

Acquired flavour preferences: contextual control of adaptation-level effects

This experiment investigated the role of context in the expression of conditioned flavour preferences. Rats were trained on a mixture of almond and sucrose and were then given intermixed exposures to almond in one context (Context A) and to sucrose in a second context (Context S). Finally, choice tests were given in both contexts, with one group given almond-versus-water tests and the other almond + sucrose-versus-sucrose tests. Preference for almond over water was greater in Context A than in Context S. Conversely, preference for almond + sucrose over sucrose was greater in Context S than in Context A. These results suggest that the perceived sweetness of a flavour depends on the context in which it is presented and confirm that expression of a flavour preference depends on the type of test employed.     

Shorter articles and notes conservation of quantity in children: The effect of vocabulary and participation

In this pilot experiment some new tests for conservation of quantity were devised. The experimental group given these tests was able to make correct judgements, while a control group, matched for age and intelligence, failed to show conservation of quantity in the standard tests used by Piaget. The difference between the tests was analysed, and some factors emerged which, it is suggested, can serve to facilitate the child's performance.     

A factorial study of number ability

In order to investigate certain hypotheses concerning the nature of number ability, and, secondarily, the nature of perceptual speed, a battery of thirty-four tests was given to 223 Chicago high school seniors and the data were factored by the centroid method. Seven primary factors were identifiable upon rotation. Several deductions are made relative to the interpretation of the factors and relative to the consistency of the data with the hypotheses which were to be tested. I wish to express my great appreciation of the aid of Professor L. L. Thurstone whose generosity made this study possible. Grateful acknowledgment is made of the aid of Mr. Ledyard Tucker in the use of the I.B.M. machines for obtaining the intercorrelations and the centroid factor loadings, and to both him and Mr. Harold Bechtoldt for aid in the testing of subjects.