ROCs in recognition with and without identification

Receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) for the recognition of unidentified word fragments were analysed and compared with ROCs for the recognition of identified word fragments. In all conditions reported here, the z-transformed ROCs (z-ROCs) for recognition without identification were linear, with slopes near 1.0. In contrast, the z-ROCs for recognition with identification each had both a linear and a quadratic component, and a slope of substantially less than 1.0. Because the recognition of unidentified word fragments likely results from a familiarity process, the present study examined how well the effect can be explained by global matching variants of signal detection theory. Global matching models predict that memory should be better for strong items from a mixed list than for strong items from a pure list, and should be worse for weak items from a mixed list than for weak items from a pure list; however, only the latter pattern was shown for the recognition of unidentified items.     

Consider the source: One step in assessing premise acceptability

Premise acceptability is conceptually connected to presumption. To say that a premise is acceptable just when there is a presumption in its favor is to give a first approximation to this connection. A number of popular principles of presumption suggest that whether there is a presumption for a premise, belief, or claim depends on the sources which vouch for it. Sources consist of internal belief-generating mechanisms and external testimony. Alvin Plantinga's notion of warrant lays down four conditions upon a source for the belief which it generates to be warranted. We argue that there is a presumption for a premise, belief, or claim if and only if there is a presumption of warrant for that premise,belief or claim. This amounts to the thesis that there is a presumption for a belief from a challenger's point of view if and only if there is a presumption from that person's point of view that her cognitive faculties which have generated the belief have been functioning properly, in an appropriate cognitive environment, in accord with a segment of her design plan aimed at the truth, and that these faculties are reliable. In light of our argument for this thesis, we may legitimately claim that one way to determine that there is a presumption for a belief is to determine that there is a presumption of warrant for that belief, and thus that in determining whether there is a presumption for a belief or premise, we may consider the source.     

An analytic tableau calculus for a temporalised belief logic

A tableau is a refutation-based decision procedure for a related logic, and is among the most popular proof procedures for modal logics. In this paper, we present a labelled tableau calculus for a temporalised belief logic called TML⁺, which is obtained by adding a linear-time temporal logic onto a belief logic by the temporalisation method of Finger and Gabbay. We first establish the soundness and the completeness of the labelled tableau calculus based on the soundness and completeness results of its constituent logics. We then sketch a resolution-type proof procedure that complements the tableau calculus and also propose a model checking algorithm for TML⁺ based on the recent results for model checking procedures for temporalised logics. TML⁺ is suitable for formalising trust and agent beliefs and reasoning about their evolution for agent-based systems. Based on the logic TML⁺, the proposed labelled tableau calculus could be used for analysis, design and verification of agent-based systems operating in dynamic environments.     

Comparison of contrast sensitivity functions across three orientations: implications for theory and testing.

The contrast sensitivity functions of a large group of observers (N = 71) were determined for three orientations of test gratings: vertical, oblique, and horizontal. Comparison of group means indicated that, consistent with previous findings for the 'oblique effect', sensitivity was poorer for the oblique orientation-but only for the mid-high spatial frequencies. Correlation analyses indicated that contrast sensitivity for a particular spatial frequency at a given orientation was highly correlated with contrast sensitivity for that same frequency at the other two orientations. Factor analysis of the intercorrelations revealed two strong factors, a low frequency factor, and a mid-high frequency factor. Results are discussed in terms of: (a) the implications for contrast-sensitivity testing across orientations, (b) the basis for the oblique effect, and (c) a different type of evidence for a dichotomy among spatial-frequency channels that may reflect the distinction between X cells and Y cells or between the parvocellular and magnocellular systems.     

抑郁个体对情绪面孔的返回抑制能力不足

探讨抑郁对情绪面孔返回抑制能力的影响。以贝克抑郁量表、自评抑郁量表、CCMD-3和汉密顿抑郁量表为工具筛选出了正常对照组、抑郁康复组和抑郁患者组各17名被试进行了真人情绪面孔线索-靶子任务的行为学实验和事件相关电位(ERP)实验。在线索靶子范式中, 靶子在线索消失后出现, 被试对靶子的位置作出反应。行为学实验显示线索靶子间隔时间(stimulus onset asynchronies, SOA)为14ms时, 正常对照组对中性面孔有返回抑制效应, 抑郁康复组对所有面孔均存在返回抑制效应, 患者组对愤怒、悲伤面孔和中性面孔存在返回抑制效应; SOA为250ms时三组被试均对悲伤面孔存在返回抑制能力不足, 以患者组最突出, 康复组对高兴面孔存在返回抑制能力不足; SOA为750ms时正常组对悲伤面孔存在返回抑制效应, 康复组对高兴和悲伤面孔存在返回抑制能力不足, 患者组对悲伤面孔存在返回抑制能力不足, 对愤怒面孔存在返回抑制效应。在SOA为750ms的条件下, ERP波形特点为正常组对高兴面孔线索P3波幅大于其他组, 对高兴面孔无效提示P1波幅小于其他面孔, 对悲伤面孔有效提示P1波幅小于高兴面孔, 对高兴面孔有效提示P3波幅大于患者组, 对悲伤面孔无效提示P3波幅大于其他组; 康复组对悲伤面孔线索P3波幅大于其他面孔, 对高兴面孔有效提示P3波幅大于患者组, 对悲伤面孔无效提示P3波幅小于正常组; 患者组对悲伤面孔线索P1波幅大于其他组、P3波幅大于其他面孔, 对悲伤面孔无效提示P3波幅小于正常组, 高兴面孔有效提示P3波幅小于其他组。提示抑郁患者对负性刺激有返回抑制能力不足, 这种对负性刺激抑制能力的缺失导致抑郁个体难以抗拒负性事件的干扰而受到不良情绪状态的困扰, 所以他们可能更多的体验到抑郁情绪, 并致使抑郁持续和发展。而抑郁康复个体对高兴、悲伤面孔均有返回抑制能力不足, 这让康复个体能同时感受到正、负性刺激, 从而能保持一种认知和情绪上特定的平衡。     

CLIENT PREFERENCE FOR COUNSELOR GENDER

This article presents the results of an investigation of male and female clients' expressed preferences for gender of their counselor. The study addressed two major comparisons: clients with a preference for therapist gender versus those without a preference, and clients with a preference for a male therapist versus those with a preference for a female therapist. LOGIT analyses indicate significant relationships among sex of the client, sex of the intake counselor, whether or not clients express a preference, and whether they express a preference for a male or female counselor. Results also suggest an influence of the sex of the intake counselor. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for counseling and research activities.     

Beyond trigger warnings: Toward a trauma‐informed andragogy for the graduate theological classroom*

Although development of trauma‐informed pedagogy for elementary and secondary classrooms has developed significantly, a dearth of resources for trauma‐informed andragogy in graduate theological classrooms remains. Theological classrooms are a unique context in which many students and professors carry experiences of trauma with them. This article makes the case for the need for a trauma‐informed andragogical model for the graduate theological classroom by: discussing the pervasiveness of trauma; providing definitions of key terms that need to be understood for elaborating a trauma‐informed andragogy; recommending trauma‐informed principles for course design and class‐session planning based in safety, trust, choice, collaboration, and empowerment; and identifying a few next steps for cultivating trauma‐informed classrooms and institutions at the graduate level.     

The influence of a hand preference for acquiring objects on the development of a hand preference for unimanual manipulation from 6 to 14 months

Development of hand preferences for unimanual manipulation of objects was explored in 90 infants (57 males) tested monthly from 6 to 14 months. From a larger sample of 380 infants, 30 infants with a consistent left hand preference for acquiring objects were matched for sex and development of locomotion skills with 30 infants with a consistent right hand preference for acquisition and 30 with no preference. Although frequency of unimanual manipulations increased during 6–14 month period, infants with a hand preference for acquisition did more object manipulations than those without a preference for acquisition. Multilevel modeling of unimanual manipulation trajectories for the three hand-preference groups revealed that hand preferences for unimanual manipulation become more distinctive with age, and the preference is predicted by the hand preference for object acquisition. Infants with a right and left hand preference for object acquisition develop a right and left (respectively) hand preference for unimanual manipulation. However, the majority of infants at each month do not exhibit hand preferences for unimanual manipulation that are unlikely to occur by chance, even by 14 months. The results are consistent with a cascading theory of handedness development in which early preferences (i.e., for acquisition) are transferred to later developing preferences (i.e., for unimanual manipulation).     

Visual line bisection in sinistrals and dextrals as a function of hemispace, hand, and scan direction

Visual line bisection was investigated in 26 sinistral and 24 dextral subjects as a function of hemispace, hand and scan direction. An ANOVA revealed significant main effects for hand preference, due to the mean bisection errors of dextral subjects being significantly leftward of those of sinistral subjects; for hand, due to the bisection errors of the left hand being significantly to the left of the right hand; and for scan, due to the bisection errors following a left scan being significantly to the left of a right scan. One significant interaction was found, that between hand and direction of scan, due to a significant difference between left and right hands following a scan from the left but not following a scan from the right. For dextral subjects the leftward bisection errors of the left and right hands following a scan from the left, but not for a scan from the right, differed significantly from the midpoint. For sinistral subjects the leftward bisection errors following a scan from the left and rightward bisection errors following a scan from the right differed significantly from the midpoint for the left hand but not for the right hand. No significant main effect or interactions for hemispace were found. This confirms that both sinistral and dextral subjects display pseudoneglect when using their preferred hand and scanning from the left. However, sinistrals, but not dextrals, will display reversed pseudoneglect when using their preferred hand and adopting a scan direction from the right. These results are discussed in terms of the interaction between three factors, whose influence can jointly and severally produce misbisections, hemispheric specialisation for visuospatial function, hemispheric activation for a manual response, and the allocation of visual attention.     

英语词汇记忆中关键字母法效应的条件研究——基于初一学生的干预研究

通过干预范式和中介刺激法, 随机选取112名初中一年级学生为被试, 采用一系列自编的材料和工具, 考察了关键字母法效应的三个条件:识别关键字母、提取同分异构词和提取同分异构词释义。结果表明:(1)如果要求准确的回忆, 从短期和长期看, 识别关键字母和提取同分异构词都是关键字母法效应的必要条件, 提取同分异构词释义是关键字母法效应的充分条件。(2)如果只要求大致的回忆, 从长期看, 识别关键字母是关键字母法效应的必要条件, 提取同分异构词是关键字母法效应潜在的充分条件, 而提取同分异构词释义则是关键字母法效应的充分条件。     

Perception of political candidates based on their stand on abortion and taxes.

This study investigated whether young voters would vote for and volunteer to work for the election campaign of a presidential candidate, given the candidate's background and positions on two major campaign issues. Findings indicate that, although voter-candidate agreement on a single issue may be enough for a voter to vote for a candidate, agreement on both issues may be necessary before a voter agrees to volunteer to work for the candidate's election campaign.     

How to say "no" to a nonword: a leaky competing accumulator model of lexical decision

We describe a leaky competing accumulator (LCA) model of the lexical decision task that can be used as a response/decision module for any computational model of word recognition. The LCA model uses evidence for a word, operationalized as some measure of lexical activity, as input to the YES decision node. Input to the NO decision node is simply a constant value minus evidence for a word. In this way, evidence for a nonword is a function of time from stimulus onset (as in standard deadline models) modulated by lexical activity via the competitive dynamics of the LCA. We propose a simple mechanism for determining the value of this constant online during the first trials of a lexical decision experiment, such that the model can rapidly optimize speed and accuracy in discriminating words from nonwords. Further optimization is achieved via trial-by-trial adjustments in response criteria as a function of task demands and list context. We show that the LCA model can simulate mean response times and response distributions for correct and incorrect YES and NO decisions for a number of benchmark experiments that have been shown to be fatal for deadline models of lexical decision. Finally, using lexical activity calculated by a computational model of word recognition as input to the LCA decision module, we provide the first item-level simulation of both word and nonword responses in a large-scale database.     

Karen Horney: Theorist in Psychoanalysis and Feminine Psychology

Karen Horney is unique and unparalleled in personality theory. She has the distinction of being the only woman whose theory is detailed in personality textbooks. Horney is known as a neo-Freudian for her revision of Freudian thought; a social psychological theorist for her emphasis on cultural and social influences; a humanist for her holistic view and emphasis on self-realization; and a feminist for her development of a feminine psychology. She was a founder of the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis and founder and dean of the American Institute for Psychoanalysis, a training institute. She was a teacher who could simplify the most difficult concepts; a therapist with deep human involvement; Editor of the American Journal of Psychoanalysis ; a Fellow of the American Psychiatric Association; a regular contributor to scientific sessions; and a prolific writer. She was personally and professionally a "well-rounded balance of an abundance of striving and creative possibility."     

The magnitude effect: Temporal discount rates and restaurant tips

Decision makers show a larger subjective temporal discount rate for small magnitudes than for large ones. That is, they demand a larger percent increase in value to compensate for a delay when they are waiting for a small amount of money than for a large amount. Prelec and Loewenstein (1991; see also Loewenstein & Prelec, 1992) proposed an increasing proportional sensitivity account of this magnitude effect. This account surmises that the magnitude effect stems from the utility function for money and is consequently not unique to intertemporal choice. One study tested this prediction by demonstrating the magnitude effect in two domains: intertemporal choice and tipping for restaurant meals, haircuts, and taxi rides. In intertemporal choice, subjects showed a larger discount rate for smaller monetary amounts. They also tipped a larger percentage on small bills than on large bills. Thus, both domains showed the magnitude effect; however, the size of the effect was not well correlated between domains.     

Effects of a history of differential reinforcement on preference for choice

The effects of a history of differential reinforcement for selecting a free-choice versus a restricted-choice stimulus arrangement on the subsequent responding of 7 undergraduates in a computer-based game of chance were examined using a concurrent-chains arrangement and a multiple-baseline-across-participants design. In the free-choice arrangement, participants selected three numbers, in any order, from an array of eight numbers presented on the computer screen. In the restricted-choice arrangement, participants selected the order of three numbers preselected from the array of eight by a computer program. In initial sessions, all participants demonstrated no consistent preference or preference for restricted choice. Differential reinforcement of free-choice selections resulted in increased preference for free choice immediately and in subsequent sessions in the absence of programmed differential outcomes. For 5 participants, changes in preference for choice were both robust and lasting, suggesting that a history of differential reinforcement for choice may affect preference for choice.     

Higher-order latent trait models for cognitive diagnosis

Higher-order latent traits are proposed for specifying the joint distribution of binary attributes in models for cognitive diagnosis. This approach results in a parsimonious model for the joint distribution of a high-dimensional attribute vector that is natural in many situations when specific cognitive information is sought but a less informative item response model would be a reasonable alternative. This approach stems from viewing the attributes as the specific knowledge required for examination performance, and modeling these attributes as arising from a broadly-defined latent trait resembling theϑ of item response models. In this way a relatively simple model for the joint distribution of the attributes results, which is based on a plausible model for the relationship between general aptitude and specific knowledge. Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms for parameter estimation are given for selected response distributions, and simulation results are presented to examine the performance of the algorithm as well as the sensitivity of classification to model misspecification. An analysis of fraction subtraction data is provided as an example. This research was funded by National Institute of Health grant R01 CA81068. We would like to thank William Stout and Sarah Hartz for many useful discussions, three anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions, and Kikumi Tatsuoka and Curtis Tatsuoka for generously sharing data.     

Short-Term Visual Recognition Memory in Pigeons

Recognition memory for lists of items was investigated in pigeons using a YES-NO recognition technique. Experiment I showed that increasing the exposure duration of the first item of a two-item list improved recognition for that item without impairing recognition of the second item. Experiment II showed that decreasing the inter-trial interval had no effect on correct YES responses but significantly increased the number of false YES responses. Experiment III showed that recognition for the last two items of a three-item list was no poorer than that for lists of only two items. Experiment IV showed that increasing the delay between presentation and test of a two-item list (from 0·25-1 s) had a more disruptive effect on recognition for the second than for the first item. The data from these four experiments support a model proposed by Roberts and Grant, according to which memory traces are independent, and decay as a negatively accelerated function of time. Experiments V, VI, and VII investigated recognition for lists of three, four, and five items, and found no evidence for a primacy effect, performance being a linear function of time since sample offset.     

Processing of words presented simultaneously to eye and ear

The simultaneous processing of auditorily and visually presented messages was examined in three experiments. Subjects searched lists of words for a target word while processing auditorily presented information. Across conditions, subjects searched for (a) target words in a list of words presented auditorily, (b) the same target words in lists presented visually, (c) a member of a taxonomic category in a visually presented list, and (d) a rhyme in a list of words presented visually. The level of processing of a simultaneous auditory message varied across experiments. In experiment 1, subjects shadowed lists of digits. In Experiment 2, subjects reported the antonym of each word in a list. In Experiment 3, subjects named the taxonomic category of each word in a list. In all three experiments, subject had high detection rates for target words presented visually and for category targets but low detection rates for target words presented auditorily and for rhyme targets. These results suggest that processing the semantic properties, but not the acoustic properties, of words presented to the visual modality is independent of simultaneous processing in the auditory modality. Implication for models of selective attention are discussed.