Parenting Stress, Social Support, and Depression for Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers: Impact on Child Development

Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher for African American and Latina adolescents compared to their White peers. African American and Latina adolescent mothers also experience more adversities than their White peers, such as higher rates of depression, school dropout, and economic disadvantage. Furthermore, children of adolescent mothers are at higher risk for adverse development. Parenting stress and social support can impact outcomes experienced by adolescent parents and their children. The present study examined the influence of adolescent mothers’ parenting stress and perceived social support on maternal depression at baseline (6 months after birth), and its impact on infant development 1 year later (18 months after birth). Participants were 180 adolescent mothers of African American or Latino/Hispanic descent. Results suggest that higher levels of parenting stress and less perceived social support were associated with higher levels of depression in the adolescent mothers at baseline. Higher levels of maternal depression were also associated with more developmental delays in infants 1 year post-baseline. Additionally, depression mediated the relationship between parenting stress and later child outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of examining parenting factors such as parenting stress, social support, and maternal depression in ethnic minority adolescent parents, and provide valuable information regarding unique risk and protective factors associated with positive maternal outcomes for ethnic minority adolescent parents and healthy development for their children.     

Familial Influences on Dating Violence Victimization Among Latino Youth

Despite theoretical and empirical evidence suggesting that the family environment plays a central role in Latino youth development, relatively little is known about how family processes influence dating violence victimization among Latino adolescents. To address this gap in the literature, we used data from 210 Latino parents and their 13- to 15-year-old adolescents to examine associations between several different family processes, including both parenting practices (parent monitoring, parent–adolescent communication) and aspects of the family relational climate (family cohesion, family conflict, acculturation conflict) and psychological, physical, and sexual dating violence victimization. Consistent with expectations, lower levels of family cohesion and higher levels of family and acculturation conflict were associated with risk for dating violence victimization, although associations varied depending on victimization type. In contrast, neither parental monitoring nor parent–adolescent communication was significantly associated with any type of dating violence victimization. In addition, we found that parent, but not teen, Anglo-American acculturation was associated with higher dating violence victimization risk. Findings suggest that family-based dating abuse prevention programs for Latino youth should seek to increase family cohesion and decrease family conflict, including acculturation-based conflict.     

Is Family Expressiveness as Reported by Mothers and Fathers Related to Children’s Social Anxiety Symptoms?

We examined family expressiveness as reported by mothers and fathers with respect to children’s report of social anxiety symptoms. Participants consisted of a clinical sample of 178 youth (8–16 years) and their parents. The sample was largely homogenous (163 Caucasians, 6 African American, 4 Hispanic, 5 Asian/Native American; 118 boys, 60 girls), and for analytic purposes, divided into two age groups: young children between 8 and 10 years and preadolescents and adolescents between 11 and 16 years. Youth completed the Social Anxiety subscale of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children and parents completed the Expressiveness subscale of the Family Environment Scale. The Expressiveness subscale measures the extent to which family members openly and directly express their emotions. We hypothesized that low levels of family expressiveness, as reported by mothers and fathers, would be associated with heightened symptoms of social anxiety for both age groups of the youth. Contrary to predictions, no significant associations were observed between young children’s social anxiety and expressiveness. For older children, however, maternal reports of family expressiveness were negatively related to social anxiety symptoms (as predicted) whereas paternal reports of family expressiveness were positively related to youth’s social anxiety symptoms (counter to predictions). This later finding suggests that the more expressive the father perceived the family to be, the higher the symptoms of social anxiety reported by the older youth. Findings are discussed in terms of differential perceptions of family expressiveness and socialization by mothers and fathers and gender role stereotypes.     

Fortalezas Familiares Program: Building Sociocultural and Family Strengths in Latina Women with Depression and Their Families

The purpose of this article is to describe Fortalezas Familiares (FF; Family Strengths), a community‐based prevention program designed to address relational family processes and promote well‐being among Latino families when a mother has depression. Although depression in Latina women is becoming increasingly recognized, risk and protective mechanisms associated with children's outcomes when a mother has depression are not well understood for Latino families. We begin by reviewing the literature on risk and protective psychosocial mechanisms by which maternal depression may affect Latino youth, using family systems theory and a developmental psychopathology framework with an emphasis on sociocultural factors shaping family processes. Next, we describe the theoretical basis and development of the FF program, a community‐based 12‐week intervention for Latina immigrant women with depression, other caregivers, and their children. Throughout this article, we use a case study to illustrate a Latina mother's vulnerability to depression and the family's response to the FF program. Recommendations for future research and practice include consideration of sociocultural processes in shaping both outcomes of Latino families and their response to interventions.     

Parent–Child Cultural Value Gaps and Depressive Symptoms Among Mexican American Youth

Cultural value gaps between Mexican American parents and their children are hypothesized to place youth at risk for poor mental health outcomes. While most studies examine these gaps on broad measures of acculturation, the present study examined value gaps in affiliative obedience, a cultural value that has at its core the belief that respect and deference must be shown to parents and adults. The present study hypothesized that adolescents would exhibit greater depressive symptoms when youth demonstrated lower levels of affiliative obedience than their mothers. Moreover, we examined whether gender, nativity status, and age predicted cultural value gaps and moderated the relationship between gaps and depressive symptoms. These questions were evaluated in a school-based sample of 159 Mexican American families whose children were either US born (n = 82) or foreign-born (n = 77). Twenty-five percent of the sample demonstrated a cultural value gap where youth endorsed lower levels of affiliative obedience than their parents, and this group reported the greatest depressive symptoms. Age moderated this relationship, and the greatest association between cultural value gaps and depression was found among the older group of early adolescents.     

Vietnamese Adolescents in Australia: Relationships between Perceptions of Self and Parental Values,Intergenerational Conflict,and Gender Dissatisfaction

The present study examined traditional family and independence values among young Vietnamese respondents (N = 204), their perceptions of parents' values, and the impact of differential parent-adolescent acculturation on intergenerational conflict and gender satisfaction. The study confirmed that adolescents perceived that they had less traditional values than their parents. Traditional family values diminished with time spent in Australia while the value accorded to independence increased. This pattern was stronger for girls than for boys. Girls valued Vietnamese traditions less than did their male peers, regarded their parents as being less accepting of independence, and were more dissatisfied with their gender role than boys. For girls but not for boys, discrepancy between adolescent and parental values was associated with more conflict and greater gender dissatisfaction. This study suggests that girls have more difficulty than boys in dealing simultaneously with the expectations of two cultures.     

Parent–adolescent communication in foster,inter‐country adoptive,and biological Italian families: Gender and generational differences

There is a paucity of studies aimed at comparing how parents and children in different family structures cope with the challenges posed by the adolescence transition; in particular, there are few studies aimed at comparing adoptive and foster families. In order to partially fill this gap, the principal aims of the present study were to verify whether there are differences in parent–child communication among foster, intercountry adoptive, and biological families according to the adolescents' gender, and to compare the perceptions of parents and adolescents concerning parent–child communication. Data were elaborated on two levels: a generational level (adolescent's and his/her parents' perceptions among the three family groups) and a dyadic level (mother–child and father–child perceptions). The sample was composed of 276 Italian families with adolescents aged between 11 and 17 (81 foster, 98 international adoptive, and 97 biological families). Subjects (mothers, fathers, and children) filled out a questionnaire including the Parent–Adolescent Communication Scale (Barnes & Olson, 1985 ). Results highlighted that in foster families, parent–child communication showed more difficulties from both the adolescent's and the parents' point of view. Adoptive adolescents, however, reported a more positive communication with both their parents than did their peers living in biological and foster families. At a dyadic level, some differences emerged among the three groups. In biological families, a more pronounced distance emerged between parents and children. In adoptive families, father and adolescent shared more similar perceptions, whereas a significant discrepancy emerged between mother and child. A higher level of perceptual congruence between adolescents and parents was found in foster families. Gender differences were also seen: Mothers experienced a more open communication with their children than did fathers, and adolescents, and above all females, communicated better with their mothers than with their fathers in all three family groups.     

Perceived Maternal Parenting Styles,Cultural Values,and Prosocial Tendencies Among Mexican American Youth

The present study aimed to extend research on parenting and positive development of Latino youth. Participants were 207 Mexican American adolescents (M age = 10.9 years, SD = 0.83 years; 50% girls) who completed measures of their parents' supportive and firm parenting, their own endorsement of respect and traditional gender role values, and their tendency to engage in six forms of prosocial behaviors. Maternal nativity was also considered as an initial predictor of parenting, adolescents' cultural values, and adolescents' prosocial behaviors. Overall, the results demonstrated that maternal nativity was associated with traditional gender roles and specific forms of prosocial behaviors. Parenting dimensions were differentially associated with respect and traditional gender role values and prosocial behaviors. Cultural values, in turn, were associated with multiple forms of prosocial behaviors. Gender differences in the processes were also explored.     

Longitudinal Effects of Latino Parent Cultural Stress,Depressive Symptoms,and Family Functioning on Youth Emotional Well‐Being and Health Risk Behaviors

U.S. Latino parents can face cultural stressors in the form of acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and a negative context of reception. It stands to reason that these cultural stressors may negatively impact Latino youth's emotional well‐being and health risk behaviors by increasing parents' depressive symptoms and compromising the overall functioning of the family. To test this possibility, we analyzed data from a six‐wave longitudinal study with 302 recently immigrated (<5 years in the United States) Latino parents (74% mothers, M_age = 41.09 years) and their adolescent children (47% female, M_age = 14.51 years). Results of a cross‐lagged analysis indicated that parent cultural stress predicted greater parent depressive symptoms (and not vice versa). Both parent cultural stress and depressive symptoms, in turn, predicted lower parent‐reported family functioning, which mediated the links from parent cultural stress and depressive symptoms to youth alcohol and cigarette use. Parent cultural stress also predicted lower youth‐reported family functioning, which mediated the link from parent cultural stress to youth self‐esteem. Finally, mediation analyses indicated that parent cultural stress predicted youth alcohol use by a way of parent depressive symptoms and parent‐reported family functioning. Our findings point to parent depressive symptoms and family functioning as key mediators in the links from parent cultural stress to youth emotional well‐being and health risk behaviors. We discuss implications for research and preventive interventions.     

Urban youth disruptive behavioral difficulties: exploring association with parenting and gender

The current study will examine behavioral difficulties among a sample of African American urban youth who were exposed to violence. Possible gender differences in disruptive behavioral difficulties, as well as possible associations between parental practices, family relationships, and youth disruptive behavioral difficulties are examined. A secondary data analysis from baseline data for 125 African American urban mothers and their children collected as part of a large-scale, urban, family-based, HIV prevention research study was analyzed. Findings reveal that externalizing behavioral problems in youth are associated with exposure to violence. Girls displayed significantly higher levels of externalizing behavioral difficulties than boys. Mothers' parenting practices and family relationships were associated with youths' externalizing behavior problems. Implications for interventions to reduce youths' exposure to violence and to develop gender sensitive interventions for youth and supportive interventions for their parents are discussed.     

Youth Depression in the Family Context: Familial Risk Factors and Models of Treatment

Research on parent risk factors, family environment, and familial involvement in the treatment of depression in children and adolescents is integrated, providing an update to prior reviews on the topic. First, the psychosocial parent and family factors associated with youth depression are examined. The literature indicates that a broad array of parent and family factors is associated with youth risk for depression, ranging from parental pathology to parental cognitive style to family emotional climate. Next, treatment approaches for youth depression that have been empirically tested are described and then summarized in terms of their level of parent inclusion, including cognitive–behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, and family systems approaches. Families have mostly not been incorporated into clinical treatment research with depressed adolescents, with only 32% of treatments including parents in treatment in any capacity. Nonetheless, the overall effectiveness of treatments that involve children and adolescents exclusively is very similar to that of treatments that include parents as agents or facilitators of change. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings and directions for further research.     

Gender as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Early Separation from Parents and Psychopathic Traits in a Sample of At-Risk Adolescents

This study examined the relationship between early separation from parents and psychopathic traits in a diverse Asian community sample of at-risk adolescents. Specifically, we tested whether gender could moderate this relationship. Data on 113 at-risk adolescents were provided by their parents who participated in this study. These adolescents were between the ages of 11 and 16 years (M = 14.35; SD = 1.10). Parents provided ratings on psychopathic traits with respect to their adolescent and they also provided information on demographic variables, psychosocial and familial information. Results showed that gender moderated the link between early separation from parents and adolescent psychopathy. As hypothesized, boys who experienced early separation from parents were associated with significantly higher levels of psychopathic traits compared with boys who did not experience early separation from parents. Girls who experienced and who did not experience early separation from parents had levels of psychopathic traits that were not significantly different from each other. These findings suggest that boys appear to be more vulnerable to the negative effects of early separation from parents and early emotional parental deprivation. There are important implications of these findings for both researchers and practitioners with respect to attempting to ameliorate the negative trajectory associated with psychopathy. It is critical to pay attention to and work with children and adolescents, especially boys, who have had early disruption to parental caregiving arrangements. Additionally, it is equally important to work with to-be adoptive or foster parents on how to handle and support potentially emotionally damaged children.     

Latina/o Children Living With an Immigrant Mother With Depression: Developmental and Cultural Nuances in Recognition and Coping

The psychological experience of maternal depression and its impact on immigrant Latina/o families often goes unrecognized and unaddressed. Children may feel especially helpless and confused about the changes they observe in their mothers’ mood and behavior, and about the deterioration of family relationships. Given the interdependence of family structures of immigrant Latina/o households, maternal depression can be detrimental to Latina/o youth attributions and coping strategies, and to their relationship with their mothers. The quantitative focus of most research on maternal depression in Latina/o samples limits our understanding of family processes in maternal depression. The current qualitative study explores the perceived impact of maternal depression on Latina/o youths’ attributions and coping strategies. This inquiry involved focus groups with 12 participants aged 9–16 years to explore their perspectives on maternal depression. All youth had participated in a 12‐week multifamily group intervention focused on building family and cultural strengths to address maternal depression on immigrant Latina/o families. Findings of the focus groups illuminated the essential experience of youth living with maternal depression, and indicated that there are developmental considerations for how youth recognize and make meaning of maternal depression, and cope with disrupted family life. Additionally, youth reported engaging in these culture‐specific ways of coping: using close sibling relationships and family structure as support, having fathers and extended family members engage in additional and restorative parenting practices, and participating in religious practices to seek refuge from family stress. We propose considerations for intervention and further areas of research.     

Parental Influences on the Prevalence and Development of Child Aggressiveness

The development of aggressiveness between 5 and 17 years and some parental influences on this development were analyzed using data from Germany. International studies have shown a “camel humps” curve, i.e., a peak of aggression of children (primarily boys) between 2 and 4 years and a second peak of antisocial or aggressive behavior of boys between 15 and 20 years, but small groups of children and adolescents were persistently aggressive. A representative longitudinal study (2,190 children and their parents) and an additional study (1,372 children and adolescents) were conducted in Germany. The hypotheses of this article are that in the data can be found (a) an U-shaped course of aggressiveness for boys and girls, but on different levels, (b) a minority of persistently aggressive children and youth, (c) influences of parental temperaments, behavioral tendencies, parenting styles and the family status on the children’s aggressiveness. The results replicate roughly the “valley” of the U-shaped course of aggressiveness. Small groups of chronically aggressive children were found as well. Influences of parental temperaments and corresponding behavioral tendencies (internalizing and externalizing behavior), parenting styles (child-centered communication, use of violence) and the social status of the families on child aggressiveness confirmed the hypotheses. These processes were moderated by gender effects between mothers, fathers, daughters, and sons. In regard to the group of persistently aggressive young people prevention of aggression should start early in childhood and over the long term. Parent education should consider more the individual personalities of the parents, not only parenting styles.     

Exploring Mothers’ and Fathers’ Relationships with Sons Versus Daughters: Links to Adolescent Adjustment in Mexican Immigrant Families

Drawing on ecological and gender socialization perspectives, this study examined mothers’ and fathers’ relationships with young adolescents, exploring differences between mothers and fathers, for sons versus daughters, and as a function of parents’ division of paid labor. Mexican immigrant families (N?=?162) participated in home interviews and seven nightly phone calls. Findings revealed that mothers reported higher levels of acceptance toward adolescents and greater knowledge of adolescents’ daily activities than did fathers, and mothers spent more time with daughters than with sons. Linkages between parent-adolescent relationship qualities and youth adjustment were moderated by adolescent gender and parents’ division of paid labor. Findings revealed, for example, stronger associations between parent–adolescent relationship qualities and youth adjustment for girls than for boys.     

Avoiding Disappointment or Fulfilling Expectation: A Study of Gender,Academic Achievement,and Family Functioning among Hong Kong Adolescents

This paper explores the relationship between gender, academic achievement, and family functioning in a Chinese cultural background. Primary and secondary school students (n?=?1597) in Hong Kong participated in a survey questionnaire. Two competing hypotheses are derived and empirically tested based on the idea that parents are likely to have higher expectations toward their sons. First, when boys perform well academically, their parents might not feel particularly overjoyed because their sons simply achieved what they were expected to, which would not affect the parents’ attitudes within the family and thus the boys’ perceptions of the family. Second, when parents have such high expectations for their sons, they would feel particularly satisfied when the outcome fulfills their high expectations. The results indicated that boys did well academically to prevent their parents from potential disappointment, whereas parents were actually happier if their daughters overachieve because they have lower initial expectations. Such differences affected parents’ attitudes, family functioning, and thus adolescents’ view of family. The results of this study carry implications for the study of family functioning and parenting among Chinese families. In particular, parents should avoid having gender-based expectations toward their children, which could adversely affect how boys view their family.     

Forgiveness,Depression, and Suicidal Behavior in Adolescents: Gender Differences in this Relationship

With the development of positive psychology, protective factors have received increased attention as buffers against suicidal ideation and attempts and against the risk factors for suicide (e.g., depressive symptoms). Empirical evidence suggests that one of the protective factors associated with depression and suicide is forgiveness. Although previous studies have demonstrated a negative association between forgiveness and risk of suicide, studies on gender differences in adolescents are still scarce. Thus, the authors assessed the moderating role of gender in a sample of adolescents. The participants were 572 adolescents (50.9% boys; M age = 15.49 years, SD = 1.09 years) from secondary school centers. The results revealed that forgiveness moderated the relationship between depression and suicidal ideation for boys but not for girls. Specifically, for boys the relationship between depression and suicidal thoughts and behaviors weakened as levels of forgiveness increased. These findings suggest therapeutic applications to reduce the likelihood of suicide in the group of adolescent boys with higher scores on depression and lower levels of forgiveness. The study results are discussed in terms of the need to use gender perspectives in positive psychology intervention programs.     

African American and Latina Adolescent Mothers’ and their Children’s Fathers’ Reports of Coparenting and Child Behavior Problems: Child Gender as a Moderator

Coparenting, the way that parents work together in their roles to parent children, has emerged as an important area for prevention and intervention. Though research indicates that low coparenting quality is associated with increased externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in children, the existing literature is not inclusive of families diverse in sociocultural identity and structure. We examined the link between coparenting and externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and tested the moderating effect of child gender on the relationship between coparenting and child behavior problems in two-year-old children of African American and Latina adolescent mothers. One hundred and thirty five parents (69 mothers and 66 fathers) completed self-report measures of coparenting and child behavior problems when their children were two years old. While we did not find support for a direct association between coparenting quality and child behavior problems, child gender did moderate the association between mother’s report of coparenting quality and both externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. High coparenting quality was associated with lower levels of externalizing behavior problems in girls and higher levels of externalizing behavior problems in boys. High quality coparenting was associated with lower levels of internalizing behavior problems in girls, but there was no difference for boys. Though the results for boys were mixed, our findings for girls suggest that high quality coparenting may be a protective factor for the development of both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Implications for future research are discussed.