Interactions among the imagination, expertise reversal, and element interactivity effects

Interactions among the imagination, expertise reversal, and element interactivity effects were investigated in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, less knowledgeable primary school students learning to use a bus timetable produced better performance under study than imagination conditions, but an increase in their experience reversed the result, producing the imagination effect. Experiment 2, in which students were taught to use a temperature line graph, replicated these results and demonstrated that the effects were more likely to be obtained using complex material. It was concluded that learners can engage more successfully in imagination procedures when learning has proceeded sufficiently to permit the information to be processed in working memory and that working memory limitations are of little consequence except when dealing with complex information.     

Novel effect of chronic corticosterone treatment on escape behavior in rats

Chronic administration of corticosterone in rats (4-35 mg/kg/day) produces a marked dose-dependent increase in the frequency of escape behavior observed when animals are held by the tail on a flat surface. The effect is fully developed after 3 days treatment. It is not the result of an increase in spontaneous motor activity since the hormone tends to reduce the latter behavior. Adrenalectomy decreases the escape behavior and tends to do so to a greater degree in rats subjected to chronic stress (restraint) than in nonstressed controls. The results suggest that endogenous corticosterone serves to maintain the above escape behavior during chronic stress.     

Influence of chronic corticosterone and glucocorticoid receptor antagonism in the amygdala on fear conditioning

Glucocorticoid receptor activation within the basolateral amygdala (BLA) during fear conditioning may mediate enhancement in rats chronically exposed to stress levels of corticosterone. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received corticosterone (400 microg/ml) in their drinking water (days 1-21), a manipulation that was previously shown to cause hippocampal CA3 dendritic retraction. Subsequently, rats were adapted to the fear conditioning chamber (day 22), then trained (day 23), and tested for conditioned fear to context and tone (day 25). Training consisted of two tone (20s) and footshock (500 ms, 0.25 mA) pairings. In Experiment 1, muscimol (4.4 nmol/0.5 microl/side), a GABAergic agonist, was microinfused to temporarily inactivate the BLA during training. Rats given chronic corticosterone showed enhanced freezing to context, but not tone, compared to vehicle-supplemented rats. Moreover, BLA inactivation impaired contextual and tone conditioning, regardless of corticosterone treatment. In Experiment 2, RU486 (0, 0.3, and 3.0 ng/0.2 microl/side) was infused on training day to antagonize glucocorticoid receptors in the BLA. Corticosterone treatment enhanced fear conditioning to context and tone when analyzed together, but not separately. Moreover, RU486 (3.0 ng/side) selectively exacerbated freezing to context in chronic corticosterone-exposed rats only, but failed to alter tone conditioning. Serum corticosterone levels were negatively correlated with contextual, not tone, conditioning. Altogether, these suggest that chronic corticosterone influences fear conditioning differently than chronic stress as shown previously. Moreover, chronic exposure to corticosteroids alters BLA functioning in a non-linear fashion and that contextual conditioning is influenced more than tone conditioning by chronic corticosterone and BLA glucocorticoid receptor stimulation.     

Interactions among affect, cognition, and visuomotor coordination as measured in words and symbols

The associative frequencies of responses to stimulus words during free and controlled forced-choice word-association tests correlate well with each other and with assessments of the affective character (emotional content) of the stimulus words for the test subjects (Osgood Index) for three samples of volunteer French undergraduate students (ns = 200, 64, and 72). These indices correlate negatively with the subjects' performance on Digit Symbol Substitution tests. Neisser's theory of schemata and Edelman's theory of neuronal group selection may provide insight into this relationship. If the associative frequency of a subject's response decreased, the affective content of the word stimulus (as perceived by the subject) diminished as well. This relationship was associated with a relatively higher score on Digit Symbol Substitution. Conversely, it was observed that subjects whose responses were characterized by high associative frequencies (whether the response was spontaneous or forced-choice) rated the stimulus words as having a relatively stronger affective content or emotional character and performed less well on Digit Symbol Substitution.     

Relationship between dietary restraint, energy intake, physical activity, and body weight: a prospective analysis.

Dietary, activity, and body weight differences in high- and low-restrained eaters and the independent impact of dietary restraint on body weight change were evaluated in 287 adults (141 men, 146 women) followed over a 1-year period. Analyses of measures of energy intake, physical activity, and dietary restraint indicated that high-restrained eaters did not differ in physical activity compared to low-restrained eaters at baseline but were ingesting significantly fewer kcal/lb and a higher percentage of the diet from fat. Body mass was significantly greater in both high-restrained men and high-restrained women than in their low-restrained counterparts. Regression modeling procedures revealed that weight and body mass at baseline were related to weight gain in men. In contrast, weight gain in women was predicted by baseline weight and higher restraint scores. These results indicate that dietary restraint is associated with weight gain in women but not in men.     

Age,puberty and attractiveness judgments in adolescents

Previous work has suggested that judgments of the attractiveness of some facial and vocal features change during adolescence. Here, over 70 Czech adolescents aged 12–14 made forced-choice attractiveness judgments on adolescent faces manipulated in symmetry, averageness and femininity, and on adolescent opposite-sex voices manipulated in fundamental frequency (perceived as pitch), and completed questionnaires on pubertal development. Consistent with typical adult judgments, adolescents selected the symmetric, average and feminine male and female faces as more attractive significantly more often than the asymmetric, non-average and masculine faces respectively. Moreover, preferences for symmetric faces were positively associated with adolescents’ age and stage of pubertal development. Unexpectedly, voice pitch did not significantly influence adolescents’ attractiveness judgments. Collectively, these findings present new evidence using refined methodology that adolescent development is related to variation in attractiveness judgments.     

Interactions among end-effectors and movement parameters influence reaction time in discrete, rapid aimed movements.

Two reliable findings in discrete, rapid aimed movements are that reaction time increases with decrease in target diameter (for the short-length movements), and reaction time is not affected by movement length [Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Perception and Performance 104 (2) (1975) 147]. Participants normally use a short stylus (SS) to tap targets located on either side of a central (aligned with body midline) start-point with no restrictions imposed on the initial posture of the limb or segmental recruitment except as determined by movement conditions. Thus, the effects of movement parameters on reaction time in previous work are potentially confounded with the effect of initial posture of the limb at the start-point, along with order and amount of the contribution of segments recruited in response execution. Two experiments were performed to resolve the confounding between initial posture and recruitment of limb segments. In the first experiment a conventional stylus (pen-like) was employed and the starting position of the limb was aligned either with the body midline or with the participant's right shoulder. The effect of starting position on reaction time was not significant. In the second experiment the starting position was in line with the right shoulder. Two groups participated. One group used a conventional stylus. For the second group a modified (lengthened) stylus was used that permitted initial limb posture and number of limb segments recruited to be held constant across an extended range of movement lengths. When similar sets of limb segments were used, reaction time increased with decreasing movement length and diminishing target diameter. These findings suggest that uncontrolled initial limb posture, uncontrolled order of joint(s) recruitment, and the subsequent inclusion of reaction time values from incompatible sources may, in the final analysis, have confounded previous work investigating movement amplitude and target diameter effects on reaction time.     

The impact of self-efficacy and implementation intentions-based interventions on fruit and vegetable intake among adults

This study tested the effect of interventions designed for people who do not eat yet the recommended daily fruit and vegetable intake (FVI) but have a positive intention to do so. Adults (N?=?163) aged 20–65 were randomised into four groups: implementation intentions (II group), self-efficacy (SE group), combination of II?+?SE group) and a control group receiving written information on nutrition. Study variables were measured at baseline, post-intervention and at 3-month follow-up. At follow-up, compared to the control group, FVI increased significantly in the II and II?+?SE groups (1.5 and 1.9 servings per day, respectively). Most psychosocial variables significantly increased compared to the control group, with the exception of SE for vegetable intake (VI). Moreover, at 3-month follow-up, change in FVI was mediated by changes in fruit intake (FI) intention and VI action planning. In conclusion, II interventions were efficient to increase FVI, with or without consideration for the development of SE. Thus, future studies should favour the adoption of this approach to bridge the intention–behaviour gap for FVI.     

Effect of chronic cold stress on intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and inflammation in rats

The present study evaluated the effect of chronic cold stress on intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and inflammation. Male Wistar rats were subjected to cold exposure for three weeks. At the end of the cold exposure, intestinal cell proliferation, luminal nitrite and protein levels, intestinal myeloperoxidase activity and mast cell numbers were evaluated. Severely compromised proliferation rate of the crypt-base cells was observed under chronic stress conditions. Cells isolated from stressed rats showed a decreased DNA content in villus and lower villus cell fractions and an increased DNA content in the crypt cells, as compared to controls. Chronic cold stress resulted in increased luminal nitrite, luminal protein levels, and intestinal myeloperoxidase activity. The number of mast cells was significantly elevated under chronic stress conditions. Chronic cold stress resulted in a compromised intestinal epithelial cell proliferation rate and induced inflammation in the rat small intestine, through the combined action of nitric oxide, neutrophils and mast cells.     

The impact of self-efficacy and implementation intentions-based interventions on fruit and vegetable intake among adults

This study tested the effect of interventions designed for people who do not eat yet the recommended daily fruit and vegetable intake (FVI) but have a positive intention to do so. Adults (N?=?163) aged 20-65 were randomised into four groups: implementation intentions (II group), self-efficacy (SE group), combination of II?+?SE group) and a control group receiving written information on nutrition. Study variables were measured at baseline, post-intervention and at 3-month follow-up. At follow-up, compared to the control group, FVI increased significantly in the II and II?+?SE groups (1.5 and 1.9 servings per day, respectively). Most psychosocial variables significantly increased compared to the control group, with the exception of SE for vegetable intake (VI). Moreover, at 3-month follow-up, change in FVI was mediated by changes in fruit intake (FI) intention and VI action planning. In conclusion, II interventions were efficient to increase FVI, with or without consideration for the development of SE. Thus, future studies should favour the adoption of this approach to bridge the intention-behaviour gap for FVI.     

Affective responses to exercise in overweight women: Initial insight and possible influence on energy intake

It is unclear how exercise influences affect in overweight and obese individuals.ObjectivesTo examine the effect of a single exercise session on positive and negative affect and examine whether pre- to post-exercise changes in affect influence subsequent energy intake (EI).DesignA crossover study in which 19 sedentary, overweight/obese women walked for ～40 min at a moderate-intensity on one day and rested for a similar duration on a separate day.MethodsPositive (PA) and negative affect (NA) were assessed pre-testing, post-testing, 60, and 120 min post-testing using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Energy intake was determined by measuring food intake before and after a buffet meal 1–2 h post-exercise/rest.ResultsFor PA, the time × condition interaction was significant (p < 0.05). There was a trend for those subjects with improved PA from pre to post-exercise (58%) to consume fewer calories post-exercise (524 ± 260.9 kcal) compared to post-rest (566.1 ± 303.0 kcal), while those who had a worsening or no change in PA (42%) had a higher EI following exercise (588.0 ± 233.7 kcal) compared to rest (524.6 ± 281.7 kcal; p = 0.08). NA was not significantly altered by exercise.ConclusionsSome overweight/obese individuals appear to experience an increase in positive affect with exercise; however, there is a high degree of individual variability in responses that warrants further examination. This study also provides initial evidence that a worsening in affect following exercise may unfavorably impact eating behaviors. These preliminary findings have the potential to enhance our understanding of factors mediating the relationship between exercise and EI.     

Neuropsychological mediators of the links among age, chronic illness, and everyday problem solving

Reductions in everyday problem solving (EPS) are often reported in older age, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The authors examined the role of 2 variables predicted to mediate (neuropsychological abilities and health status) or moderate (health status) the relationship between age and EPS performance. Toward these ends, they compared EPS and neuropsychological performance in 50 functionally independent adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and 64 control participants matched on age and education. Both older age and CKD were associated with worse performance on measures of EPS and memory/executive abilities. Neuropsychological abilities were positively associated with EPS performance. In both the full sample and control participants only, memory/executive functioning mediated the association between presence of chronic illness and EPS. Furthermore, memory/executive functioning partially mediated the link between age and EPS. Findings indicate that relations among age, health status, and EPS are not straightforward. Although performance on neuropsychological measures appeared to underlie EPS declines in chronic illness, increasing age remained independently associated with reduced EPS. The authors discuss implications for models of adult developmental changes in everyday cognition.     

Inhibiting ventral hippocampal NMDA receptors and Arc increases energy intake in male rats

Research into the neural mechanisms that underlie higher-order cognitive control of eating behavior suggests that ventral hippocampal (vHC) neurons, which are critical for emotional memory, also inhibit energy intake. We showed previously that optogenetically inhibiting vHC glutamatergic neurons during the early postprandial period, when the memory of the meal would be undergoing consolidation, caused rats to eat their next meal sooner and to eat more during that next meal when the neurons were no longer inhibited. The present research determined whether manipulations known to interfere with synaptic plasticity and memory when given pretraining would increase energy intake when given prior to ingestion. Specifically, we tested the effects of blocking vHC glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc) on sucrose ingestion. The results showed that male rats consumed a larger sucrose meal on days when they were given vHC infusions of the NMDAR antagonist APV or Arc antisense oligodeoxynucleotides than on days when they were given control infusions. The rats did not accommodate for that increase by delaying the onset of their next sucrose meal (i.e., decreased satiety ratio) or by eating less during the next meal. These data suggest that vHC NMDARs and Arc limit meal size and inhibit meal initiation.

Research into the higher-order cognitive controls of eating behavior has demonstrated that hippocampal neurons, which are critical for learning and memory, also regulate energy intake (Benoit et al. 2010; Parent 2016; Kanoski and Grill 2017). The hippocampus is functionally divided along its longitudinal axis into dorsal (posterior in primates) and ventral (anterior in primates) poles (Moser and Moser 1998; Fanselow and Dong 2010; Strange et al. 2014). Generally, dorsal hippocampal (dHC) neurons are necessary for episodic and spatial memory, whereas ventral hippocampal (vHC) neurons are essential for affective and motivational processes and emotional memory (Fanselow and Dong 2010; Strange et al. 2014). dHC and vHC have different anatomical connections, cellular and circuit properties and patterns of gene expression that likely contribute to the different functions that they serve (Moser and Moser 1998; Thompson et al. 2008; Dong et al. 2009; Barkus et al. 2010; Fanselow and Dong 2010; Bienkowski et al. 2018).vHC neurons, in particular, are poised to integrate energy-related signals with mnemonic processes because they contain receptors for numerous food-related signals (Kanoski and Grill 2017) and project to several brain regions critical for food intake (Namura et al. 1994; Cenquizca and Swanson 2006; Radley and Sawchenko 2011; Hsu et al. 2015b). vHC lesions increase food consumption and body mass (Davidson et al. 2009, 2012, 2013), and activation of vHC receptors for gut hormones affects food intake and food-related memory (Kanoski et al. 2011, 2013; Hsu et al. 2015a, 2017, 2018). Additionally, vHC glutamatergic projections to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, lateral septum, and prefrontal cortex inhibit energy intake (Sweeney and Yang 2015; Hsu et al. 2017).It is possible that vHC neurons contribute to the representation of the memory of a meal and inhibit subsequent intake. In support, we have shown that vHC neurons inhibit energy intake during the postprandial period. Specifically, optogenetic inhibition of vHC principle glutamatergic neurons given after the end of a sucrose or chow meal, timed to occur when the memory of the meal would be undergoing consolidation, accelerates the onset of the next meal and increases the amount eaten during the next meal when the neurons are no longer inhibited (Hannapel et al. 2019). Inactivation of these neurons given after a saccharin meal also hastens the initiation of the next saccharin meal and increases the size of that next meal, suggesting that vHC inhibition does not increase intake by disrupting the processing of interoceptive visceral signals (Hannapel et al. 2019).If vHC neurons inhibit intake through a process that involves memory, then well-defined molecular events necessary for vHC synaptic plasticity should play a role in controlling meal timing and meal size because synaptic plasticity at hippocampal excitatory synapses is a critical mechanism underlying memory formation (Bailey et al. 2015; Bartsch and Wulff 2015). Activation of glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) is required for most forms of hippocampal synaptic plasticity (Malenka and Nicoll 1993; Volianskis et al. 2015). NMDAR-dependent increases in intracellular calcium activate proteins and stimulate mRNA synthesis and protein translation that collectively act to increase glutamate AMPA receptor function in the postsynaptic cell, thereby increasing glutamate signaling and synaptic strength (Shanley et al. 2001; Bevilaqua et al. 2005; Herring and Nicoll 2016). Synaptic plasticity in vHC is NMDAR-dependent and vHC NMDARs are often necessary for vHC-dependent memory (Zhang et al. 2001; Xu et al. 2005; Kent et al. 2007; Czerniawski et al. 2012; Portero-Tresserra et al. 2014; Zhu et al. 2014; Clark et al. 2015; Maggio et al. 2015). Of note, feeding-related hormones such as insulin and leptin enhance NMDAR functionality in hippocampal cultured neurons and slices (Liu et al. 1995; Shanley et al. 2001).Hippocampal synaptic plasticity is also dependent on the activation of the immediate early gene (IEG) activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc). Arc is considered a master regulator of synaptic plasticity (Bramham et al. 2010; Korb and Finkbeiner 2011; Shepherd and Bear 2011). It is downstream from many molecular signaling pathways and is necessary for virtually every type of synaptic plasticity (Bramham et al. 2008; Korb and Finkbeiner 2011; Shepherd and Bear 2011). Learning experiences produce small but significant increases in Arc that are typically maximal within 15 min of the experience, and unlike other IEGs, Arc expression reflects synaptic plasticity rather than neuronal activity (Fletcher et al. 2006; Guzowski et al. 2006; Carpenter-Hyland et al. 2010). vHC Arc is necessary for memory consolidation because disrupting vHC Arc expression with Arc antisense (anti-Arc) oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) disrupts vHC-dependent memory (Czerniawski et al. 2011, 2012; Chia and Otto 2013). We have shown that sucrose consumption increases vHC Arc expression during the early postprandial period (Hannapel et al. 2017), suggesting that ingestion activates molecular processes required for synaptic plasticity in vHC.Although it is well established that vHC neurons influence energy regulation, it is unknown whether vHC neurons regulate energy intake through a process that requires NMDARs and Arc. In the present experiments, we tested the prediction that disrupting vHC NMDAR activation and Arc expression would increase meal size and decrease the interval between meals. Specifically, NMDAR antagonists or anti-Arc ODNs were infused into the vHC and subsequent intake of sucrose was assessed.     

Psychosocial risk and resistance factors among children with chronic illness,healthy siblings,and healthy controls

Psychosocial risk and resistance factors within the domains of parental functioning, family Stressors, and family resources were examined as predictors of psychological adjustment and physical problems in juvenile rheumatic disease patients (N=93), their healthy siblings (N=72), and demographically matched healthy controls (N=93). Family socioeconomic status and background variables showed few consistent relationships with child functioning. However, a constellation of risk and resistance factors tended to show comparable associations with functioning for patients, siblings, and controls. Higher parental depression and medical symptoms and more family Stressors, sibling problems, and burden of illness on the family predicted more problems among the patients. These relationships held when disease duration and severity were controlled. For the siblings, increased parental and patient dysfunction, more family Stressors, and less family cohesion and expressiveness were associated with more problems. Although the associations were not as strong, mothers' depression and lack of family cohesion and expressiveness also were related to more adjustment problems among the control children. These findings imply that there may be a general association between certain risk and resistance factors and childhood adaptation.This research was supported in part by NIH Multipurpose Arthritis Center Grant AM20610, NIMH Grant MH16744, and Veterans Administration Medical and Health Services Research and Development Service Research funds. Jan Gottlieb provided valuable help in all phases of the research. We appreciate the help of the staff of the Pediatric Rheumatology Clinic at Children's Hospital at Stanford and the families who participated in this study.     

Hispanic versus African American girls: body image, nutrition, and puberty

Public health research has been dominated by the biomedical model, which does not appear to be appropriate for studying public health variables across different populations. For example, when comparing the Hispanic American (HA) and African American (AA) population in the U.S., there are similarities on several demographic and public health variables. Despite these similarities, there is a public health paradox. HA with strong cultural ties engage in fewer high-risk behaviors and therefore have favorable health outcomes. The primary focus of this study however, is the health disparities between AA and HA girls in particular. Pediatric research indicates that HA girls are developing secondary sexual characteristics at a later age than AA girls. Researchers have acknowledged that growth trends are sensitive to life changes such as catastrophes, prosperity, and those which affect diet and lifestyle. Thus, this study investigated whether there are differences in food intake between HA and AA girls as a function of early sexual maturation and body image perceptions in the context of culture. Participating were 23 HA and 44 AA girls, aged 7 to 10 years, and 1 of their parent/guardians.     

Coping among children and adolescents with chronic illness

The present study was aimed to investigate age and gender effects on coping with everyday stressors among children and adolescents with chronic illness and healthy controls. Patients (8–13 years of age) with asthma (n=47), atopic dermatitis (n=52), and cancer (n=57) were compared to healthy controls (n=158) matched by age, gender, and grade. Self-report data on coping with academic and interpersonal stressors were collected. The primary results indicated that coping with everyday stressors was improved in children and adolescents with chronic illness compared to healthy controls. Thus, patients reported less passive avoidance on cross-situational coping and tended to show more situation-specific coping with social and school-related stressors than healthy controls. Additionally, among the clinical groups, patients with atopic dermatitis and cancer scored higher on positive self-instructions than patients with asthma. Conclusively, the results suggest that coping with a chronic illness may lead to more effective coping with everyday stressors. Implications for evaluating coping styles in patients with chronic illness are discussed.     

Dairy-product intake and hip fracture among older women: issues for health behavior

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between dairy-product intake and hip fracture among a national sample of women aged 50 years and older. Univariate analyses using SAS procedures showed dairy-product intake was significantly associated with hip fracture. Women who had suffered hip fracture reported higher dairy use than women who had not experienced these fractures, a finding that is dramatically inconsistent with the literature. This finding may reflect positive behavioral changes resulting from the hip fracture event. Further research must focus on changes in health behavior after fracture, which may assist in understanding the roles of specific theories of health behavior. Application of principles of health behavior could improve the effectiveness of preventive treatment programs for osteoporosis.     

Pain anxiety, acceptance, and outcomes among individuals with HIV and chronic pain: a preliminary investigation

The current study investigated the role of during treatment changes in pain anxiety in the relation between during treatment changes in pain acceptance and chronic pain outcomes. Participants included 45 (15 women) adults (M_age = 50.42, SD = 7.69) who were HIV positive and experienced chronic pain. They were offered 12 weekly, 90-min group CBT sessions to increase understanding about chronic pain and to improve coping skills. Four hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the mediating role of treatment changes in pain anxiety in the relation between treatment changes in pain acceptance and chronic pain outcomes. Results suggest that increases in pain acceptance during treatment were associated with decreased levels of pain anxiety during treatment, as well as decreases in pain-related impairment at treatment completion. Furthermore, decreases in pain anxiety during treatment were associated with decreases in pain-related impairment at treatment completion. Finally, treatment changes in pain anxiety were found to partially mediate the association between treatment changes in pain acceptance and pain-related impairment at treatment completion. Results are discussed within the context of better understanding the processes of change within a CBT model for chronic pain patients.