Directionally different expectancy theory predictions of work motivation and job satisfaction

Conventionally, expectancy theory has utilized a multiplicative combination of expectancy and value scores in predicting both job behavior (work motivation and job performance) and job-related affect (job satisfaction). An extensive clinical literature, however, suggests that affect is a function of the discrepancy between expectancies and values. Hence, two hypotheses were advanced and tested in organizational settings: (1) that the multiplicative formulation (EV) will yield superior predictions of work motivation and job performance in comparison to the discrepancy model (E-V), (2) that the discrepancy model (E-V) will yield superior predictions of job satisfaction in comparison to the multiplicative model (EV). Results from three studies (of 399 engineers, 202 librarians, and 1,777 engineers) were highly supportive of both hypotheses.An early version of this paper was presented at the 10th Annual National Meeting of the American Institute for Decision Sciences, November 1, 1978, and an abbreviated write-up appeared in the AIDSProceedings. The author is greatly indebted to the following people: Susanne P. Wahba, for allowing the use of her data (Study Two); Gene Dalton and Paul Thompson, for their contribution to the research in Study One; and Joe Folkman for his help with the data analysis in Study Three. Financial support was provided in part by the Research Foundation of the City University of New York (RF10662).     

Influence of practice schedule on testing schema theory predictions in adults

Since the publication of Schmidt's (1975) schema theory of motor learning, numerous studies have assessed the variability of practice hypothesis. Of these, only research using children as subjects has provided consistent results. Findings from adult studies have been equivocal. Two experiments were conducted to assess the possibility that the schedule of variable practice during acquisition may be a clue to this equivocality, since only experiments (using adults as subjects) that have provide random variability of practice conditions have consistently supported the tenets of schema theory. Using a two movement rapid timing task, subjects learned to control their actions under one (constant) or four (variable) parameters, with variable practice conducted under either a blocked or a randomized schedule. Results for variable error and absolute constant error showed that random-variable practice provided strong support for the schema theory prediction, whereas blocked-variable practice provided only relatively weak support. Two contrasting implications of these results are discussed with respect to support versus non-support for Schmidt' schema theory.     

Strategies to cope with negative social identity: predictions by social identity theory and relative deprivation theory

Predictions by social identity theory (SIT) and relative deprivation theory (RDT) concerning preferences for strategies to cope with a negative in-group status position were tested. The focus of the present research was a comparison of the theories regarding their differential patterns of prediction. For this purpose, a natural sample within a specific historical situation was investigated: East Germans after the German unification. First, the predictive power of SIT and RDT variables was tested separately. In a second step, a possible integration of the theories was addressed. Combining the SIT variables and RDT variables led to an integrated model indicating a differential pattern of prediction for intergroup strategies. The RDT components explained the collective responses, whereas SIT constructs were related to individual strategies.     

Testing expectancy theory predictions using behaviorally based measures of motivational effort for engineers

Expectancy theory predictions were tested using a sample of engineers who had been rated on dimensions of work motivation or effort (in contrast to performance) using the behaviorally based rating scales designed by Landy and Guion (1970). It was found that the expectancy model was only weakly upheld for an older (41 or older) age subgroup, while few relationships were observed for a younger (below 41) age group. Also, the motivational behavior scales did not show any enhanced predictability when compared to a more global rating of job performance.     

Core mechanisms in "theory of mind"

Our ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of other people does not initially develop as a theory but as a mechanism. The "theory of mind" mechanism (ToMM) is part of the core architecture of the human brain, and is specialized for learning about mental states. Impaired development of this mechanism can have drastic effects on social learning, seen most strikingly in the autistic spectrum disorders. ToMM kick-starts belief-desire attribution but effective reasoning about belief contents depends on a process of selection by inhibition. This selection process (SP) develops slowly through the preschool period and well beyond. By modeling the ToMM-SP as mechanisms of selective attention, we have uncovered new empirical phenomena. We propose that early "theory of mind" is a modular-heuristic process of domain-specific learning.     

Using system-wide trust theory to make predictions about dependence on four diagnostic aids

System-wide trust strategy can occur when operators are exposed to multiple aids of different reliabilities. D. Keller and S. Rice (2009) showed that when a perfectly reliable aid was presented concurrently with an unreliable aid, participants tended to treat the 2 aids as a unit (system-wide trust) rather than as different units with different reliabilities (component-specific trust). Limitations to their original study prevented the authors from making strong conclusions about a pervasive system-wide trust strategy across domains. The current study revisits this theoretical issue by increasing the number of aids, manipulating the amount of information and feedback participants were given, and using a single-task paradigm rather than a dual-task paradigm. Results were conclusive. While providing information and feedback were beneficial to overall performance, dependence measures indicated that system-wide trust strategies were pervasive across almost all of the manipulations. We discuss the theoretical and applied implications of these data.     

Expectancy theory predictions and behaviorally anchored scales of motivation: An empirical test of engineers

The present study involved 375 engineers and 110 supervisory team engineers. A partial replication of the Arvey and Neel (1974) and the Landy and Guion (1970) research involving behaviorally anchored scales of motivational effort was first investigated with a number of engineering groups. In addition, a behaviorally specific motivational effort rating scale was developed for and tested in the company. The organizational specific scale results were examined and compared to those generated from the Landy and Guion (1970) scale. It was found that the organizationally specific and engineer relevant scale is a better predictor of two types of expectancies.     

Using SAT-grade and ability-job performance relationships to test predictions derived from stereotype threat theory

To examine the generalizability of stereotype threat theory findings from laboratory to applied settings, the authors developed models of the pattern of relationships between cognitive test scores and outcome criteria that would be expected if the test scores of women and minority group members were affected by stereotype threat. Two large data sets were used to test these models, one in an education setting examining SAT-grade relationships by race and gender and the other in a military job setting examining Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery-job performance relationships by race. Findings were not supportive of the predictions arising from stereotype threat theory, suggesting caution in positing threat as a key determinant of subgroup mean test score differences in applied settings.     

Applicant–Employee Fit in Personality: Testing predictions from similarity‐attraction theory and trait activation theory

We extend prior research by examining whether, and how, applicant–employee fit in the personality traits of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion affect organizational attractiveness. We test hypotheses based on similarity‐attraction theory and trait activation theory. Results from two studies indicate that applicants high in valued traits are more attracted to organizations when employees are more similar to them in those personality traits, whereas employees’ trait levels do not affect attraction for applicants low in valued traits. The effects of objective applicant–employee fit in personality on attractiveness were mediated by perceived applicant–employee fit. The pattern of the observed applicant–employee fit interactions was best predicted by trait activation theory and, thus, provide an important extension to similarity‐attraction theory.     

History and theory in "applied ethics"

Robert Baker and Laurence McCullough argue that the "applied ethics model" is deficient and in need of a replacement model. However, they supply no clear meaning to "applied ethics" and miss most of what is important in the literature on methodology that treats this question. The Baker-McCullough account of medical and applied ethics is a straw man that has had no influence in these fields or in philosophical ethics. The authors are also on shaky historical grounds in dealing with two problems: (1) the historical source of the notion of "practical ethics" and (2) the historical source of and the assimilation of the term "autonomy" into applied philosophy and professional ethics. They mistakenly hold (1) that the expression "practical ethics" was first used in a publication by Thomas Percival and (2) that Kant is the primary historical source of the notion of autonomy as that notion is used in contemporary applied ethics.     

荀子性恶论的多维解读

在传统思想研究中,苟子是以性恶论而与孟子、老庄一同构成了中国古典人性论。其实,深入阅读苟子读本,笔者发现荀子对人性的评判较为复杂。传统性恶论远不能揭示荀子人性论思想的丰富性和多元性。笔者现从苟子之“性”的中性色彩、苟子之“恶”的真实解释、苟子人性论中的向善和知善、人和环境的互动四个层面予以展开论述。