Advances in stalking risk assessment

Over the past 15 years, forensic mental health has become more concerned with the concepts of violence prevention, management, and treatment. The development of specialist tools to aid in the assessment of a range of risks reflects this concern. This article explores contemporary thinking on violence risk assessment and how this knowledge can be applied to the relatively newer field of stalking risk assessment. The role of risk state and risk status are discussed, in addition to the way that standard structured professional judgment procedures need to be adapted to reflect the variety of risks present in stalking situations. The authors go on to describe the development and format of the Stalking Risk Profile, a set of structured professional judgment guidelines for assessing risk in stalkers. Suggestions are made for future research to enhance knowledge and improve practice in the field of stalking risk assessment.     

Therapeutisches Gruppenprogramm für Stalking-Opfer

Stalking victims show a high level of psychological disturbance and frequently need professional help. Thus, stalking must be considered as a serious issue in the field of psychosocial care. However, specific intervention programs to support stalking victims are not available. This paper reports on a pilot project that offers therapeutic help to stalking victims via a structured outpatient group therapy approach. The program aims at setting up appropriate behavior patterns concerning contact with the stalker, strengthening the victims’ self-efficacy and developing coping strategies for stalking-related stress situations. To investigate the effectiveness of the group program, an evaluation study has been conducted using self-report inventories, interview data and biological parameters. Preliminary results from 4 completed groups with 13 participants, indicating that the approach is highly effective, are reported. The potential of the group approach to improve psychosocial care provision for stalking victims is discussed. The need to integrate psychotherapeutic approaches into a multi-professional support system for stalking victims, comprising legal counsel, police measures and psychosocial interventions, is emphasized.     

Assessing the link between stalking and domestic violence

Stalking may be defined as repeated following, communicating, and contacting a person in a threatening manner that causes the person to fear, on a reasonable basis, for his or her safety. Stalking is a recent legal construct, and social scientific research on stalking is in an early stage. Given that the most common victim of stalking is an ex-intimate partner, there may be an association between stalking and domestic violence. This paper evaluates this potential link. Specifically, the literature on stalking is reviewed by means of comparing it to existing literature on typologies of domestically violent persons. It is proposed that most stalkers who target ex-intimate partners are characterologically similar to a type of batterer labeled “borderline/cyclical.” Both domestic stalkers and borderline/cyclical batterers possess traits of Cluster B personality disorders. These traits include emotional volatility, attachment dysfunction, primitive defenses, weak ego strength, jealousy, anger, substance abuse, and early childhood trauma. Further, both groups have been observed to react with rage to perceived or actual rejection or abandonment. It is suggested that applying what is known about borderline/cyclical batterers to stalkers may aid in the investigation of this phenomenon. Implications for research are discussed.     

Stalking

An anti-stalking law, now common in many western countries, took effect in Germany in November 2006 (§238 Criminal Code; see Infobox). Stalking occurs when a stalker follows a victim for weeks or months and shows molesting, threatening or attacking behavior. Through the continual pursuit, the victims feel at the least extremely insecure and at times afraid; in extreme cases, stalking can lead to psychological disturbances. Our investigations have shown that about 10–15% of males and 15–20% of females are stalking victims at some stage of their lives. This contribution describes the different forms of stalking and discusses the various motives for this behavior, as well as the psychological problems of the victim. It also provides some first thoughts on the psychotherapy of both stalkers and victims.     

Stalking: Patterns,motives, and intervention strategies

Stalking is generally defined as an intentional pattern of repeated intrusive and intimidating behaviors toward a specific person that causes the target to feel harassed, threatened, and fearful, or that a reasonable person would regard as being so. Motivations for stalking include a delusional belief in romantic destiny, a desire to reclaim a prior relationship, a sadistic urge to torment the victim, or a psychotic overidentification with the victim and the desire to replace him or her. Stalkers may carry a variety of diagnostic labels, including psychotic disorders, delusional disorders, or cluster-B personality disorders, and are generally refractive to conventional psychological treatments. Risk factors for violence in a stalking scenario include a prior intimate relationship, the stalker's feeling of being rejected or humiliated, and generic risk factors for violence such as low educational level and substance abuse. Cyberstalking can be as distressing, if not more so, to victims as physical stalking due to the concealment and anonymity afforded by electronic communication. Victims may adopt varying strategies for dealing with stalkers, such as avoiding, confronting, seeking third party assistance, and accessing the legal system. Threat management specialists have offered certain recommendations that can make it easier for a victim to deter and discourage a stalker.     

Key questions to consider in stalking cases

Stalkers can inflict severe injury upon and have been known to kill their victims. Based on the detailed responses of 1,565 stalking victims, a set of key questions was produced with the aim of increasing the opportunities of police officers to identify potentially dangerous stalkers. Despite marked methodological differences and the inclusion of a large number of variables, regression analyses for significant correlates for physical assault per se and for severe violence largely reflected the results of earlier works. For severe violence (n=136), the most important correlate was a high level of victim fear, suggesting that victims are adept at assessing their own risk of stalker violence. The set of 11 questions performed well on preliminary tests and is presented here.     

Motives to Report Stalking Cases to the Police: A Comparison Between a Large City and a Small Town in Italy

This study aimed to analyze the cases reported to police by women who were victims of stalking. The use of police offense records is well known in investigations of victims of this phenomenon as well as other violent crimes (e.g., domestic violence). The objective was to compare the 3 motives (own safety, other safety, change habits) indicated by victims in reporting the cases to police as recorded in case files. For each motive, a comparison was made of the characteristics of victims and stalkers, the nature of the relationship between the victims and stalkers, and the characteristics of the stalking campaign, the stalker’s behaviors, the consequences to the victims, and coping strategies. This information was reported by victims to police in a large city and small town in Italy. The comparison showed that victims in large cities were less prone to report stalking cases to the police than victims in small towns. Differences addressed the duration of the stalking campaign, the behaviors involved, the consequences, and the coping strategies adopted. Police forces could benefit from the results of this research in defining both training courses for police officers and prevention courses for the general population.     

The female stalker

A study of 143 female stalkers was conducted, part of a large North American sample of stalkers (N=1005) gathered from law enforcement, prosecutorial, and entertainment corporate security files (Mohandie, Meloy, Green McGowan, & Williams, 2006). The typical female stalker was a single, separated, or divorced woman in her mid-30s with a psychiatric diagnosis, most often a mood disorder. She was more likely to pursue a male acquaintance, stranger, or celebrity, rather than a prior sexual intimate. When compared with male stalkers, the female stalkers had significantly less frequent criminal histories, and were significantly less threatening and violent. Their pursuit behavior was less proximity based, and their communications were more benign than those of the males. The average duration of stalking was 17 months, but the modal duration was two months. Stalking recidivism was 50%, with modal time between intervention and re-contacting the victim of one day. Any prior actual relationship (sexual intimate or acquaintance) significantly increased the frequency of threats and violence with large effect sizes for the entire female sample. The most dangerous subgroup was the prior sexually intimate stalkers, of whom the majority both threatened and were physically violent. The least dangerous were the female stalkers of Hollywood celebrities. Two of the McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, and Ogloff (2009b) predictor variables for stalking violence among men were externally validated with moderate effect sizes for the women: threats were associated with increased risk of violence, and letter writing was associated with decreased risk of violence.     

The role of warning behaviors in threat assessment: an exploration and suggested typology

The concept of warning behaviors offers an additional perspective in threat assessment. Warning behaviors are acts which constitute evidence of increasing or accelerating risk. They are acute, dynamic, and particularly toxic changes in patterns of behavior which may aid in structuring a professional's judgment that an individual of concern now poses a threat - whether the actual target has been identified or not. They require an operational response. A typology of eight warning behaviors for assessing the threat of intended violence is proposed: pathway, fixation, identification, novel aggression, energy burst, leakage, directly communicated threat, and last resort warning behaviors. Previous research on risk factors associated with such warning behaviors is reviewed, and examples of each warning behavior from various intended violence cases are presented, including public figure assassination, adolescent and adult mass murder, corporate celebrity stalking, and both domestic and foreign acts of terrorism. Practical applications and future research into warning behaviors are suggested.     

Identifying violence among women patients attending family practices: the role of research in community change

Violence against women has serious consequences. Although victims use health facilities more frequently than others, violence is still not recognized in most services and in the larger community. This study had three aims: (1) to estimate the prevalence of violence among women patients in primary care, (2) to evaluate the feasibility of asking all women about violence, and (3) to make violence visible, and thereby initiate a process of professional and community change on the issue of violence against women. The study was carried out in a small Italian town, at the initiative of a local family doctor. We conducted a cross‐sectional survey among patients of six family practices and 444 women responded to a self‐administrated questionnaire. Five per cent of respondents experienced physical or sexual violence in the last year, and 25% had experienced it in the past. Nineteen per cent had experienced psychological violence in the last 12 months. Risk factors for current violence were: younger age, being pregnant or with young children, being separated or divorced, or lack of stable employment. Most women were in favour of being asked about violence by their doctor. The study's results were disseminated in public meetings, with good press coverage. This resulted in a dramatic increase in the visibility of victims of violence, the development of a training course for health professionals, and the creation of the first women's group in the town. Along with advocacy work, the group has prepared a booklet on violence addressing women, and is now raising funds to start an ‘anti‐violence’ telephone line. Overall, the study has become a tool for change within the health services and the community. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Impact of Criminalization of Stalking on Italian Students: Adherence to Stalking Myths

Although behaviors that we today identify as stalking have occurred throughout history, the recognition and systematic investigation of stalking are quite recent. Italy’s antistalking law is fairly new, and factors such as cultural myths, stereotypical beliefs, and definitional ambiguities continue to cause problems in the interpretation and recognition of stalking among the general public. This study examined perceptions and attitudes of 2 groups of Italian criminology students at 2 different times, before and after the implementation of Italy’s 2009 antistalking law. The Stalking Attitudes Questionnaire (McKeon, Ogloff, & Mullen, 2009) was administered to samples in 2007 and 2010. Results revealed significant changes in some beliefs and attitudes between the pre- and post-assessments. Interpretation suggests that the combination of Italian antistalking legislation and increased attention to research seem to have decreased students’ adherence to stalking myths.     

The dangerous nature of intimate relationship stalking: threats, violence, and associated risk factors.

Although previous studies of forensic and law enforcement stalking populations (Harmon, Rosner, & Owens, 1995; Meloy & Gothard, 1995; Zona, Sharma, & Lane, 1993) agree that the degree of intimacy of the victim-suspect relationship is an important factor in stalking cases, they have not conducted in-depth analyses of this variable. This study compared 223 intimate (n=135) and non-intimate (n=88) stalking cases managed by the Los Angeles Police Department's Threat Management Unit. A path analysis revealed a significant relationship between the stalkers' intimate versus non-intimate status and violence committed toward persons and property. This relationship was positively influenced by the suspect's level of proximity to the victim and threats toward the victim and property, but not influenced by suspect's criminal, psychiatric, and domestic violence histories. Overall, intimate relationship stalkers used more dangerous stalking behaviors than non-intimate relationship stalkers. Risk factors for assessing dangerousness of stalkers are discussed.     

Predicting physically violent misconduct in prison: A comparison of four risk assessment instruments

Violence in correctional facilities is an important issue for both prisoners and prison staff. Risk assessment instruments have demonstrated their accuracy in predicting the risk of (re) offending and institutional violence in psychiatric settings, but less is known about their ability to predict violent misconduct in prison. The present study applied four risk assessment instruments (Structured Assessment of Protective Factors for violence risk, Historical Clinical Risk Management‐20, Psychopathy checklist – Revised, and Violent Risk Appraisal Guide) to 52 violent offenders in a Swiss prison in order to evaluate the instruments' predictive validities. Outcomes were instances of physically violent, other and any misconduct as recorded in prison files during the 12 months following the prisoners' assessments. Approximately 15% of offenders committed physically violent misconduct and approximately 42% committed any misconduct. The results show that mainly dynamic assessment tools are as good predictors of physically violent misconduct as mainly static assessment tools. Targeting dynamic factors could increase the effectiveness of interventions to reduce the risk of physical violence in prison.     

Recidivism risk assessment in sex offenders

Violent behaviour risk assessment is one of the most relevant research areas in current Psychology of Crime. Various scales for violence risk assessment have recently been developed from research about crime careers and risk factors. One of these instruments is the Sexual Violence Risk Assessment-20 (SVR-20), translated and adapted to Spanish by the Group of Advanced Studies in Violence of the University of Barcelona. The goal of this study is to verify the predictive capacity of the SVR-20 to predict sexual violence recidivism in a Spanish sample of sexual offender inmates. The method used was a retrospective study based in 163 sexual offender files and a 4-year time lag. The data were analysed with the logistic regression technique. Of the sample, 79.9% non-recidivist individuals were correctly classified, and 70.8% recidivist individuals. The ROC curve obtained for the model shows a very good discriminant capacity for the SVR-20, with a 0.83 AUC value. The main conclusion of this study is that the Spanish adaptation of SVR-20 is a good instrument to predict the risk of sexual violence.     

Assessment and treatment of obsessional harassment

Obsessional harassment and stalking have become increasingly recognized as significant social problems, often with dramatic negative repercussions on the lives of victims. As the public awareness of this problematic behavior has grown, the amount of clinical attention and empirical research focused on understanding the perpetrators of harassment has increased accordingly. Nevertheless, relatively little research has addressed the numerous issues involved in the assessment and treatment of obsessional harassment offenders. This article reviews the existing research on obsessional harassment/stalking, and offers a diagnostic typology of these offenders based on the nature of the relationship with the victim and the motivation of the offender. Treatment modalities are then discussed with regard to each of the primary diagnoses that occur among obsessional harassment offenders. Finally, strategies for initiating treatment for unmotivated or unwilling offenders are discussed, along with clinical issues that arise in the evaluation and treatment process.     

Violence in close relationships--development of a research area: comment on Archer (2000)

A brief history of empirical research on violence in close relationships is presented. Assumptions of and conclusions made by feminist researchers about the problems of battered wives are reviewed. It is argued that their focus on marital violence as a form of aggression against women by men and their concern for severely beaten wives may have caused them to ignore high levels of female violence in marriage and dating. J. Archer's (2000) meta-analysis of studies of marital and dating violence showed that both sexes display violence in these relationships, although women are more likely to be injured. An expansion of Archer's definition of heterosexual violence (or violence in close relationships) to include sexual aggression and stalking is suggested. Reasons for relatively high levels of female violence in close relationships relative to violence toward strangers are briefly discussed. It is argued that more attention needs to be given to male victims of violence from their partners.     

Psychosocial risk assessment among families receiving assistance from the social services

This study analyses the psychosocial risk profiles that better discriminate between three levels of risk: low, middle and high. We also examine to what extent the assessments of the level of risk made by professionals of social services are consistent with their decision of initiate a "risk declaration" expedient. For this purpose, 468 cases of families (245 two-parents and 223 one-parent) were examined through the Psychosocial Risk Profile of the Family. Discriminant analysis showed that social exclusion and family violence profiles discriminate between high and middle-low levels of risk in two-parent families. Negligence and family violence plus maternal inadequacy and children maladjustment discriminate between high and middle-low levels of risk in one-parent families. There is a high consistence between the assessment of psychosocial risk and the decision to initate a procedure of a "risk declaration" in both families, with a tendency to overestimate the middle risk in one-parent families.     

An Introduction to Issues of Gender in Stalking Research

Stalking research has increased substantially in the past 20?years. This special issue is intended to contribute to this literature by using gender as a focus point in 1) applying new theoretical perspectives that incorporate the role of gender to the study of stalking perpetration (Davis et al. 2010; Duntley and Buss 2010), 2) addressing divergent findings regarding gender in experiences of victims (Sheridan and Lyndon 2010) and perpetrators (Thompson et al. 2010), and 3) furthering the study of how gender influences perceptions of stalking (Cass and Rosay 2011; Dunlap et al. 2011; Sinclair 2010; Yanowitz and Yanowitz 2010). To place this special issue in context of the current state of knowledge on gender and stalking, we review the state of the existing research as it relates to the domains covered by articles present in this issue.     

Integrating research and practice in federal law enforcement: Secret Service applications of behavioral science expertise to protect the President

This paper discusses specific behavioral research needs by law enforcement and justice systems to guide forensic decision-making in areas of targeted violence. Continuing incidents of stalking, workplace violence, and threats to public figures underscore the importance of developing empirically based risk assessment and intervention strategies. Reviewing briefly the relevant literatures in these areas, this paper describes deficits in these literatures and the absence of a model for integrating research and practice in applied settings. The U.S. Secret Service Behavioral Research Program is explored as one example of how behavioral science expertise may be integrated with law enforcement responsibilities. Considerations associated with building behavioral research capacities in applied settings are examined in the context of differences in professional orientation, values, and access to information. Specific research directions to improve understanding of targeted violence are recommended along with suggestions for ways in which the psychology-law field may facilitate integration of research into practice. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.