Culture and Social Obligation: When “Shoulds” Are Perceived as “Wants”

This study explored motivational differences in the perception of social obligations by respondents from individualist versus collectivist cultures. Participants were 120 undergraduate students (60 Latinos and 60 Anglos) who completed a lengthy questionnaire assessing the extent to which they felt obligated to help and wanted to help across a variety of social situations. Although individuals from the two cultures reported a strong sense of obligation with regard to close friends and family members, Latinos expressed a greater desire (i.e., greater perceived “want”) to engage in these “should” behaviors. Furthermore, compared to Anglos, Latinos felt a stronger sense of both shoulds and wants in their motivations to help more distant family and friends. The two groups did not differ in their motivations to help distant acquaintances and strangers. Although wants were associated with life satisfaction for both groups, shoulds were positively associated with life satisfaction for Latinos but not Anglos. Overall, compared to the Anglo students, Latino students perceived helping others as both more obligatory and more personally desirable, suggesting a more congruent view of personal autonomy and societal control in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures.     

Uncovering the diverse cultural bases of social identity: Ingroup ties predict self‐stereotyping among individualists but not among collectivists

On what basis do people form their social identities? To investigate this issue, the present research investigates cross‐cultural differences in self‐stereotyping, a key outcome of social identification. In particular, the research tests the hypothesis that ingroup ties are a stronger predictor of self‐stereotyping among people from individualist cultures than among people from collectivist cultures. In Study 1, university students (N = 117) completed measures of ingroup ties and self‐stereotyping with respect to an intimacy group (family and friends). Consistent with predictions, ingroup ties significantly predicted self‐stereotyping among individualists but not among collectivists. Study 2 (N = 104) found a similar pattern of results among members of the global internet community who considered either an intimacy group (their friends), a task group (their work group) or a social category (their gender). These results indicate that people in individualist cultures are more likely than those in collectivist cultures to base their social identities on ingroup ties. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to self‐categorization theory's depersonalization account of social identification.     

Emotions in collectivist and individualist contexts

A theory of cultural differences in emotions was tested in a questionnaire study. Hypotheses about the differences between emotion in individualist and collectivist contexts covered different components of emotion: concerns and appraisals, action readiness, social sharing, and belief changes. The questionnaire focused on 6 types of events that were rated as similar in meaning across cultures. Participants were 86 Dutch individualist respondents and 171 Surinamese and Turkish collectivist respondents living in the Netherlands. As compared with emotions in individualist cultures, emotions in collectivist cultures (a) were more grounded in assessments of social worth and of shifts in relative social worth, (b) were to a large extent taken to reflect reality rather than the inner world of the individual, and (c) belonged to the self-other relationship rather than being confined to the subjectivity of the self.     

Individualism and Collectivism: Implications for Women

This essay examines the nature and dynamics of individualism and collectivism as social and interpersonal phenomena. It considers the importance of affirming the true self as a key feature of individualism as conceived by Donald Capps. By means of cultural and gender analysis, the essay explores aspects of self-affirmation among women, especially Korean American women in both individualist and collectivist societies. It ultimately proposes a “self-affirming collectivism” that promotes the authentic individual self as imago Dei whose unique identity is expressed within community.     

Individualist and collectivist values: hypotheses suggested by Alexis de Tocqueville

The work of Alexis de Tocqueville, the 19th-century social theorist who coined the term individualism, supplied a conceptual foundation for hypothesizing that individualism and collectivism, as value systems, should be directly correlated. In previous research (D. K.-S. Chan, 1994), individualist and collectivist values were negatively correlated in a sample of men, and in a combined sample of men and women (P. J. Watson, J. Sherbak, & R. J. Morris, 1998) these values were positively correlated. In the present study, a positive relationship was in fact observed in both men and women. Linkages with other measures of self and social functioning uncovered a few small associations of individualist values with maladjustment. Collectivist values predicted adjustment. These data confirm that individualist and collectivist values are compatible, just as Tocqueville had suggested, and that gender differences do not explain the conflicting results previously reported in this literature.     

Ibsen's Nora and the Confucian Critique of the “Unencumbered Self”

Criticisms of the liberal‐individualist idea of the “unencumbered self” are not just a staple of communitarian thought. Some modern Confucian thinkers are now seeking to develop an ethically particular understanding of social roles in the family that is sensitive to gender‐justice issues, and that provides an alternative to liberal‐individualist conceptions of the “unencumbered self” in relation to family roles. The character of Nora in Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House seemingly exemplifies such conceptions of the unencumbered self in her rejection of her housewife role for a more authentic selfhood. Drawing upon the capabilities approach to justice, and positive early Japanese bluestockings’ responses to Ibsen's play, I argue that Nora's character is better understood as exemplifying an ethically compelling disencumbered self in potentially cross‐cultural circumstances: a self criticizing and rejecting social roles that are found to be unjust according to universal, as opposed to particularist, “Confucian” ethical standards.     

Supportive Organizations,Work–Family Enrichment,and Job Burnout in Low and High Humane Orientation Cultures

The present study draws on the work–family and cross-national management literature to examine the relationships between Family-Supportive Organizational Perceptions (FSOP), work–family enrichment, and job burnout across five countries with different cultural backgrounds: Malaysia, New Zealand, France, Italy, and Spain. Using a combined sample of 980 employees, we find support for a partial mediation model in which FSOP is positively associated with work–family enrichment, which in turn is negatively related to job burnout. Given our focus on support, we test the moderating role of the cultural value humane orientation, that is, the extent to which a society values altruism, kindness, and compassion. The five countries in our sample offer variation in their country-level scores as determined by the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004). We found that individuals from cultures that scored higher in “as is” humane orientation (i.e., scores for actual practices) experienced lower job burnout when FSOP increased. This pattern was reversed when considering “should be” humane orientation (i.e., scores for ideal values). The implications for the work–family and the cross-national management literature, and for practice, are discussed.     

The Association of Daily Hassles and Uplifts with Family and Life Satisfaction: Does Cultural Orientation make a Difference?

The study examined similarities and differences between people having individualist and collectivist cultural orientations in terms of what they perceive as stressful and uplifting experiences in their daily lives, and the relation between daily experiences and family and life satisfaction. Data were collected from two representative community samples (697 Jews and 303 Arabs). Each sample was grouped into individualist and collectivist cultural orientations. The two cultural orientation groups differed with respect to the appraisal of positive and negative daily experiences. A structural equation modeling (SEM) multi-group analysis indicated a similar factor structure for hassles and uplifts in both groups. However, the two groups differed in the effects of positive and negative daily occurrences on family and life satisfaction.     

Normative predictions of collectivist‐individualist intentions and behaviour of Indians

Five hundred and thirty‐four college students, drawn from five distantly located cities in India that varied in affluence and infrastructural facilities, participated in a study designed to understand their normative predictions about people's responses to 20 situations. The responses consisted of five combinations: collectivist behaviour with collectivist intention (CC), individualist behaviour with individualist intention (II), collectivist behaviour with individualist intention to behave subsequently in an individualist way or to serve individualist intention (CI), individualist behaviour with collectivist intention to behave subsequently in a collectivist way or to serve a collectivist purpose (IC), and a mix of collectivist and individualist intention and behaviour (C&I). The findings indicated that the situations involving family members were reported to induce collectivism in behaviour as well as intentions. However, compelling personal needs were believed to lead to serve individualist interests, but by adopting collectivist behaviour. Further, collectives, compared to individuals, were reported to behave in collectivist way. Even when collectives behaved in individualist fashion, the ultimate aim was conjectured to serve a collectivist purpose. Females, like males, were perceived to meet compelling individual needs by resorting to collectivist behaviour. In less compelling matters that are less salient to their gender role, females were reported to remain collectivist in their behaviour as well as intentions. More affluent places with better infrastructure are believed to manifest either a mix of collectivist and individualist behaviour and intentions or a response pattern that enables individualist interests to be served through collectivist behaviour. A clear individualist pattern of behaviour and intention was rarely predicted to occur. The changing socioeconomic scenario has probably induced a shift towards cultivating individualist intentions that are still realized through collectivist behaviour. With the rate of change accelerating further, individualism is likely to get stronger, particularly in more affluent areas with better infrastructure. However, the combinations of collectivist and individualist behaviour and intentions are likely to remain complex.     

Attachment avoidance and the cultural fit hypothesis: A cross-cultural investigation

This study examined the impact of attachment avoidance on relationship outcomes. A "cultural fit" hypothesis, which states that individual differences in personality should be associated with relationship problems if they encourage patterns of behavior that are incongruent with cultural norms, was investigated. It was hypothesized that attachment avoidance, a style of relationship in which emotional distance and independence are emphasized, would be more strongly associated with relationship problems in more collectivist societies (Hong Kong and Mexico) than in a more individualist one (the United States), given the greater emphasis placed on closeness and harmony in relationships in collectivist cultures. As predicted, associations between avoidant attachment and relationship problems were stronger in Hong Kong and Mexico than in the United States.     

Cultural influences on terror management: Independent and interdependent self-esteem as anxiety buffers

Terror management theory (TMT) proposes that self-esteem serves as a defense against the fear of death. Previous research has suggested that independent self-esteem is more salient in individualist cultures, whereas interdependent self-esteem is more salient in collectivist cultures. Thus, we hypothesized that in collectivist cultures, independent self-esteem would play a lesser role and interdependent self-esteem a greater role in terror management, compared to individualist cultures. The results support this prediction. In Study 1, personal self-esteem was negatively associated with death anxiety in samples from a Western (Austria) and Eastern (China) culture. However, both self-liking and self-competence were negatively associated with death anxiety among Austrian participants, but only self-liking (and not self-competence) was so among Chinese participants. Surprisingly, collective self-esteem was not significantly correlated with death anxiety. Yet, Study 2 showed that among Chinese participants, relational self-esteem was negatively associated with death anxiety. Study 3 examined the roles of relational versus personal self-esteem in moderating the effects of mortality salience on worldview defense. Among Chinese participants, relational rather than personal self-esteem increased the defense of worldviews centered on collectivist-Chinese values following mortality salience (Study 3a). In contrast, among Austrian participants, personal rather than relational self-esteem attenuated the effect of mortality salience on the defense of individualist-Austrian worldviews (Study 3b). Self-esteem serves a terror management function in both collectivist and individualist cultures; however, the differences between cultural worldviews determine the type of self-esteem that is more relevant to terror management processes.     

Individualist and collectivist norms: when it's ok to go your own way

We conducted two studies to investigate the influence of group norms endorsing individualism and collectivism on the evaluations of group members who display individualist or collectivist behaviour. It was reasoned that, overall, collectivist behaviour benefits the group and would be evaluated more positively than would individualist behaviour. However, it was further predicted that this preference would be attenuated by the specific content of the group norm. Namely, when norms prescribed individualism, we expected that preferences for collectivist behaviour over individualist behaviour would be attenuated, as individualist behaviour would, paradoxically, represent normative behaviour. These predictions were supported across two studies in which we manipulated norms of individualism and collectivism in an organizational role‐play. Furthermore, in Study 2, we found evidence for the role of group identification in moderating the effects of norms. The results are discussed with reference to social identity theory and cross‐cultural work on individualism and collectivism. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Individualism-Collectivism and Personality

This paper provides a review of the main findings concerning the relationship between the cultural syndromes of individualism and collectivism and personality. People in collectivist cultures, compared to people in individualist cultures, are likely to define themselves as aspects of groups, to give priority to in-group goals, to focus on context more than the content in making attributions and in communicating, to pay less attention to internal than to external processes as determinants of social behavior, to define most relationships with ingroup members as communal, to make more situational attributions, and tend to be self-effacing.     

Motivation for Solitude: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Adolescents from Collectivist and Individualist Cultures in South Africa

Solitude during adolescence is a potentially double edged sword. Involuntary (non-self-determined solitude) is associated with loneliness, which is known to predict many forms of psychological ill-being. In contrast, freely chosen (self-determined solitude) is associated with healthy developmental outcomes. It is possible that cultural attitudes towards solitude could influence the way adolescents think about and engage in solitude. The present study examined whether South African adolescents from individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their motivations for solitude, using the Motivation for Solitude Scale (MSS-SF). Respondents included 426 adolescents from collectivist and 266 from individualist cultures, between 14 and 18 years of age (mean age?=?15.7). For valid cross-cultural comparisons, measurement equivalence was established using invariance and differential item functioning analysis. Results for the measurement invariance analysis (MI) marginally failed to support scalar invariance. Given criticism that MI is overly restrictive, Rasch analysis was used to test for uniform DIF, which supported invariance. Next, Bayesian analysis was used to investigate group differences. There was no difference between the cultural groups for non-self-determined solitude, but, adolescents from individualist cultures were less likely to engage in self-determined solitude. Results support the cross-cultural application of the MSS-SF, and point to a possible cultural bias against self-determined solitude in individualist cultures, despite its potential benefits.     

Culture and Gender Differences in the Perception of Friendship by Adolescents

This study examines personal collectivism and individualism (or allocentrism and idiocentrism) in relation to the perception of same-sex friendships among adolescents living in a multi-ethnic context in the Netherlands. Respondents originally from collectivist cultures were more allocentric than respondents originally from individualist cultures. Among the former group allocentrism was unrelated to idiocentrism, whereas a negative relation was found among the latter group. Allocentrism was related to a greater sensitivity to friends, using more ascribed features in describing friends, having fewer friends but seeing their relationship as closer, perceiving less intimacy with other-than-best-friends, and endorsing rules about relations with third parties more. Idiocentrism was related to less sensitivity to friends, using more personal characteristics in describing friends, but also to having fewer friends, talking less intimately with others, and endorsing friendship rules about intimacy less. Additionally, gender had independent effects on the perception of friendship, suggesting that cultural and gender differences cannot be characterized by the same set of features.     

Loyalty Without Conformity: Tailoring Self-Perception as a Means of Balancing Belonging and Differentiation

We argue that members of individualist cultures balance their desire to belong with their desire to be different by maintaining a self-image as being loyal but relatively immune to group influence. Consistent with this, in Study 1 there was a strong tendency for people to rate themselves as being more independent (i.e., less conformist) than other people in their college. College students also rated themselves as being highly loyal to the group, however no self-other discrepancies were found on this dimension. This is despite the fact that traits of loyalty were rated more positively than were traits of independence. Study 2 provided evidence that culture influences the pattern of self-other discrepancies. Whereas people from individualist countries self-enhance on independence dimensions, people from collectivist countries self-enhance on loyalty dimensions. Again, these effects could not be explained as being a function of how positive these traits were seen to be, suggesting a cultural explanation rather than a straight forward superiority bias explanation for the observed discrepancies in self-other ratings. Results are discussed in relation to the SCENT model.     

“Socializing” Achievement Goal Theory: The Need for Social Goals

Cultures shape the types of goals that students pursue in the classroom. However, research in achievement goal theory seems to have neglected this cultural aspect with its exclusive focus on individualistically-based goals such as mastery and performance goals. This emphasis on mastery and performance goals may reflect Western individualist psychological thinking. Thus, social goals, which may be more salient in collectivist cultures, are relatively neglected. There is a dearth of studies investigating the role of social goals in academic motivation, and the few studies that did explore them are somewhat problematic. This paper reviews research done within the achievement goal theory, considers the need for more studies on social goals, and concludes with the argument that social goals are important in understanding student motivation especially in collectivist cultures.     

集体主义背景下的宽恕研究及其对心理治疗的启示

以往的宽恕理论和宽恕干预的方法多是基于西方个人主义文化背景的, 缺乏集体主义背景下的相关研究。在集体主义背景下, 被冒犯者应对伤害的方式、宽恕的策略以及影响宽恕的人格特质都与个人主义有明显的区别。此外, 跨文化的宽恕模型也从不同角度描述了集体主义背景下的宽恕, 决定性宽恕和情绪性宽恕模型区分了不同形式的宽恕在不同文化中的表现; 基于自我和人格特质的宽恕模型描述了不同背景下影响宽恕的人格因素; 宽恕的动态过程模型描述了宽恕过程中的文化影响因素。对于这些内容的总结也对集体主义背景下的宽恕干预具有一定的启示作用。     

The importance of social context in cross-cultural comparisons: first graders in Colombia and the United States

The authors explored the cultural constructs of individualism and collectivism by investigating the prosocial behavior of 1st graders (N = 202; 110 girls, 92 boys) in countries typically classified as collectivist (Colombia, South America) and individualist (United States). Contrary to expectations, U.S. children shared more than Colombian children did. However, U.S. children were more likely to take candy from another child without permission (demonstrating individualism). Results indicated that in both countries sharing was greater with friends than with other fellow classmates, and children frequently reported friendship as the reason they shared. Findings support the importance of the social context, such as the relationship between participants, in cross-cultural research and suggest that simple dichotomies of culture often overlook complex associations between culture and behavioral differences.     

Collectivism coexisting with individualism: an Indian scenario

A sample of 292 respondents, drawn from three locations, participated in a study designed to examine the effects of eighteen situations on the choice of collectivist and individualist behaviour and intentions, or their combinations. The findings indicated that concerns for family or family members evoked a purely collectivist behaviour. Compelling and urgent personal needs and goals in conflict with the interests of family or friends led to a mix of individualist and collectivist behaviour and intentions. Individualist behaviour intended to serve collectivist interests was the third most frequently opted choice. Respondents' education had a significant effect and other background variables had indeterminate effects on the choice of either purely collectivist or a mix of collectivist and individualist behaviour and intentions.