Rorschach administration: a comparison of the effect of two instructions given to an inpatient sample of drug addicts

The effect of administering the Rorschach Inkblot Method under two instructional sets was compared on three classes of outcome variables: the frequency with which subjects asked questions about the test; the frequency of brief protocols (fewer than 14 responses); and 17 traditional Rorschach structural summary scores. Sixty subjects, obtained from three inpatient psychiatric clinics treating drug addicts, randomly received either the short pre‐testing instruction “What might this be?” originally developed by Herman Rorschach and recommended in the Comprehensive System, or a longer and more elaborated instruction, which for many years has been the standard instruction in Norway. Compared with the Norwegian instruction, the short instruction produced significantly more questions to the examiner about the test. For the other outcome measures no differences were observed.     

A survey of graduate students' experiences, interests, and attitudes about learning the Rorschach

A questionnaire about the experiences, interests, and attitudes of graduate students learning the Rorschach was sent to 235 student affiliates of the Society for Personality Assessment. The questionnaire asked for information concerning their Rorschach training in (a) class instruction, (b) adjunctive instruction (i.e., extraclass supervision and experiences at practicum sites), (c) research, and (d) personal experiences and views concerning this training. Seventy-one percent (166) of the questionnaires were returned. Results indicate that almost half the respondents gave from zero to four Rorschachs in their first course, that only half the students took a second course on the Rorschach, and that the Exner Comprehensive System was learned by a majority of the students. Students felt somewhat unsure of their skills concerning the formulation of Rorschach findings into concepts that could be communicated in a written report. Students reported that they lacked instruction concerning the research findings and application of the Rorschach. Students also did not feel grounded well enough in theory. Specific recommendations based on the information gathered from this survey are offered to improve teaching practices in the Rorschach as well as in personality-assessment training.     

Artistic Creativity and Rorschach Whole Responses

The present experiment investigated artistic creativity as it functions in the production of whole responses to Rorschach ink blots. The number, percentage, and quality of whole responses produced by a group of artists were compared to that of a group of nonartists under two instructional sets (regular instructions versus whole response set). Artists and nonartists did not differ significantly in whole response quality. Artists and nonartists gave significantly more whole responses under the whole response set, but artists produced a significantly greater number of whole responses, regardless of instructions. Artists gave a significantly greater proportion of whole responses only under regular instructions. These results give statistical verification to the discriminatory power of Rorschach whole responses in the identification of artistic creativity.     

Changes in Rorschach Teaching

To investigate recent changes in Rorschach instruction, a double postcard questionnaire was distributed to all APA-approved doctoral programs in clinical psychology asking for information about the number and type of Rorschach courses. The data were compared with 1961 and 1966 surveys. A trend toward fewer Rorschach courses per university and a decrease in courses specifically on the Rorschach is evident. Changing views toward projective techniques may be a contributing factor, but the addition of areas such as behavior modification and community psychology into the training programs is also compressing the more traditional courses.     

A Comparison Between Comprehensive System and an Early Version of the Rorschach Performance Assessment System Administration With Outpatient Children and Adolescents

For many years, the effects of variability in the length of Rorschach records has been debated, and a new administration procedure aimed at reducing the proportion of short and long records has recently been introduced. Using an outpatient sample of children and adolescents, this study explored the impact of an early version of the Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R–PAS) administration, on the central tendencies of Rorschach variables. Specifically, the mean values of 51 variables in 142 Comprehensive System versus 99 R–PAS collected records were compared with each other. Results found comparable mean values across CS and R–PAS administration methods for the variables that guide interpretation with children and adolescents. Both methods produced a comparable number of long (> 27 responses) records. The only relevant difference that emerged is that the early R–PAS administration version yielded significantly fewer short (14–16 responses) records and lower variability in the number of responses.     

Changing epistemological beliefs: The unexpected impact of a short‐term intervention

Background Previous research has shown that sophisticated epistemological beliefs exert a positive influence on students' learning strategies and learning outcomes. This gives a clear educational relevance to studies on the development of methods for promoting a change in epistemological beliefs and making them more sophisticated. Aims To investigate the potential for influencing domain‐specific epistemological beliefs through a short instructional intervention. Sample On the basis of their performance on a preliminary survey of epistemological beliefs, 58 students at a German university (87.7% females) with a mean age of 21.86 years (SD = 2.88) were selected. Half of them had more naive beliefs and the other half had more sophisticated ones. Methods Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: one whose epistemological beliefs were challenged through refutational epistemological instruction or another receiving non‐challenging informational instruction. The treatment effect was assessed by comparing pre‐ and post‐instructional scores on two instruments tapping different layers of epistemological beliefs (DEBQ and CAEB). Data were subjected to factor analyses and analyses of variance. Results According to the CAEB, the naive group receiving the refutational epistemological instruction changed towards a more sophisticated view, whereas the sophisticated students receiving the informational instruction changed towards an unintended, more naive standpoint. According to the DEBQ, all research groups except the naive refutational group revealed changes towards a more naive view. Conclusions This study indicates the possibility of changing domain‐specific epistemological beliefs through a short‐term intervention. However, it questions the stability and elaborateness of domain‐specific epistemological beliefs, particularly when domain knowledge is shallow.     

Rorschach teaching in APA-approved clinical graduate programs: ten years later

A questionnaire on teaching of the Rorschach technique was sent to all APA-approved graduate clinical psychology programs in the United States and Canada. The survey represents a 10-year update of a study conducted in 1974 and reported in 1976. The questionnaire asked for the degree of emphasis placed on the Rorschach in the curriculum; the Rorschach teaching experience of the Rorschach instructor; the instructor's evaluation of the technique as a clinical tool, a teaching aid, and a research instrument, and a list of the instructional material used to teach the Rorschach. Based on a 93% return of questionnaires, the major results show that 88% of the programs place major emphasis on the Rorschach in at least one assessment course (compared to 86% in 1974); in contrast to the results of the 1974 survey, there were no differences between the ratings of highly experienced and moderately experienced instructors; as in 1974, instructors as a group highly rated the Rorschach as a clinical tool and teaching aid, but gave it generally low ratings as a research instrument; and the results clearly indicate that the Exner Comprehensive System is widely used as an instructional method.     

Rorschach Comprehensive System data for a sample of 141 adult nonpatients from Denmark

A sample (n = 141) of Danish nonpatients 25-50 years of age, never hospitalized with a psychiatric diagnosis and currently employed, was demographically representative of two geographical areas of Copenhagen with different social strain. The sample, as well as 45 persons not currently employed, was tested with the Rorschach (Exner, 1995), MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989), Word Association Test (Ivanouw, 1999b), WAIS Comprehension subtest (Hess, 1974), and SCL-90-R (Olsen, Mortenson, & Bech, 2006). Half of the persons contacted volunteered for the study. There was no difference in rate of volunteering between a standard no-feedback condition and a feedback condition; the latter, however, tended to attract more psychologically resourceful persons. The employed persons tended to appear healthier than the not employed. Response style of the subjects, quality of the Rorschach protocols, reliability of scoring, and the effect of the data being grouped on geographical area and examiner were examined. Form level, color, texture, cooperative movement, and EA were lower than in the Comprehensive System (CS; n = 450) sample, but higher than in nine international nonpatient Rorschach studies. Unique for the Danish sample was a low number of animal movement answers. The Rorschach data showed women to be healthier than men. Differences in Rorschach variables based on educational level were small.     

THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF WEB-BASED AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: A META-ANALYSIS

Meta-analytic techniques were used to examine the effectiveness of Web-based instruction (WBI) relative to classroom instruction (CI) and to examine moderators of the comparative effectiveness of the 2 delivery media. The overall results indicated WBI was 6% more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge, the 2 delivery media were equally effective for teaching procedural knowledge, and trainees were equally satisfied with WBI and CI. However, WBI and CI were equally effective for teaching declarative knowledge when the same instructional methods were used to deliver both WBI and CI, suggesting media effects are spurious and supporting Clark's (1983, 1994) theory. Finally, WBI was 19% more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge when Web-based trainees were provided with control, in long courses, and when trainees practiced the training material and received feedback during training. Study limitations and directions for future research are discussed.     

言语编码和视空编码在时间—空间联结中的作用

时间和空间存在反应编码联合效应（spatial—temporal association of response codes effect, STEARC）,该效应的编码是视觉空间性还是言语性还存在争议。本研究借鉴Georges（2015）的研究方式,以2秒内的时距为刺激,实验1采用言语反应和空间反应,词语和空间与时距的关系分为一致和不一致。结果发现言语反应时,短时距用“左边”反应快,长时距用“右边”反应快,空间反应时,时距和空间的一致性效应消失,表明言语编码参与两种反应形式的STEARC效应。实验2将词语改为箭头朝向（视觉编码条件）,发现视觉编码和空间编码存在于相对应的反应形式中。研究表明时空关系的编码形式与具体任务要求有关。     

The convergent validity of MMPI and Rorschach scales: an extension using profile scores to define response and character styles on both methods and a reexamination of simple Rorschach response frequency

Past research indicated the convergence of Rorschach and MMPI scales may be a function of (a) simple Rorschach response frequency (R) or (b) complex response-character styles on both methods. In this study, new criteria were developed for defining the second assumption using F and K from the MMPI and R and Lambda from the Rorschach. Although substantially different from the factor criteria used previously (KS = .45 and .30), the new criteria still produced the expected pattern of correlations among MMPI and Rorschach scales. Averaged across 17 constructs, the new criteria produced strong validity coefficients for patients with similar styles (M composite r = .50), though they were less effective for patients with discordant styles (M composite r = -.27). It was also demonstrated that R by itself does not moderate convergent validity. Rather, statistical modeling with two sets of 300 random samples (a) demonstrated the prior findings related to R were the result of sampling error and (b) supported the general hypothesis that Rorschach and MMPI scales correlate to the extent response-character styles correlate. Implications are considered.     

Predicting the Completion of an Integrative and Intensive Outpatient Chronic Pain Treatment With the Personality Assessment Inventory

The X-zero distinction has been used as the operational definition of MMPI item subtlety in previous research. A consistent finding has been that the X items, which are obvious in terms of pathological content, can be faked whereas the more subtle zero items cannot be faked. The present study examined the relationship between instructional sets and endorsement patterns, using a more refined, comprehensive measure of item subtlety. Sixty (30 male, 30 female) subjects completed two MMPI protocols, one under a standard instructional set and the other under either a fake-good or fake-bad response set. Order of administration and sex were counterbalanced. In general, the findings for the subtle-obvious dimension paralleled the previous findings with the X-zero distinction. Endorsement of obvious items was a direct function of instructional set, whereas endorsement of subtle items was inversely related to instructional set. Because subtle items did not appear to measure the constructs for which they had been originally intended, other uses for subtle items were discussed.     

On the Rorschach M response and monotheism

The Rorschach human movement (M) response has recently been debated (Exner, 1991a, Kramer, 1991a, 1991b) with additional wider implications for Rorschach psychology. The objective of this discourse is twofold: (a) to elaborate on the contributions of perceptanalysis (Piotrowski, 1957) to this debate and (b) to develop the thesis that diversity is desirable for the long-term advancement of the field of Rorschach psychology and personality assessment. These motifs are illustrated with an interpretation of a clinical case example and with rationale from the theoretical literature and implications for interpreting short Rorschach protocols. The conclusion is proffered that some degree of diversification is more beneficial than requiring the adoption of a single Rorschach approach (i.e., monotheism).     

On the Rorschach M Response and Monotheism

The Rorschach human movement (M) response has recently been debated (Exner, 1991a, Kramer, 1991a, 1991b) with additional wider implications for Rorschach psychology. The objective of this discourse is twofold: (a) to elaborate on the contributions of perceptanalysis (Piotrowski, 1957) to this debate and (b) to develop the thesis that diversity is desirable for the long-term advancement of the field of Rorschach psychology and personality assessment. These motifs are illustrated with an interpretation of a clinical case example and with rationale from the theoretical literature and implications for interpreting short Rorschach protocols. The conclusion is proffered that some degree of diversification is more beneficial than requiring the adoption of a single Rorschach approach (i.e., monotheism).     

Contextual Enrichment and Distribution of Practice in the Classroom

Small scale experiments have led us to believe that teaching a lot in a short time is inefficient, perhaps because it overtaxes student resources. This principle, however, has not been adequately tested in realistic instructional settings. Another untested practical notion derived from psychological theory is that diversifying environmental contexts of teaching and providing contextual aids for the organization of course content can make instruction more effective, particularly when it is massed. These predictions were tested with an 8-hour statistics course, consisting of four videotaped lessons. The lessons were presented either within a single day or over 4 days. Environmental context was either diversified, by teaching the lessons in four different rooms, or was held constant by using a single room setting. Retention was tested 5 days after training in a totally new environment. Field independence of subjects was measured by the Group Embedded Figures test. We found: (1) Distribution of lessons over 4 days was more effective than a single day presentation; (2) diversification of context by using a different room for each of the four lessons resulted in better productive performance for field-dependent students. Diversification was equally effective for time-massed and distributed teaching. We concluded that both massing and context effects were primarily retrieval, rather than learning, phenomena because performance at the end of each lesson was not affected by experimental manipulations while recall after 5 days was. Our results indicate that efficiency of instruction can be increased by diversifying the teaching environment. Such context diversification would be a particularly useful instructional strategy in settings where transportation costs necessitate massed teaching.     

A comparison of human and automated instruction of autistic children

While it appears reasonable to assume that the autistic child might benefit from the development of programmed instruction and teaching machines to teach imitation, concepts, and receptive vocabulary skills, no systematic research to date has seriously investigated such possibilities. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of automated versus teacher-controlled instruction in the education of autistic children. Four autistic children, each with extreme deficits in language, social, and self-care behaviors, were trained on a matching-to-sample task under three different instructional situations within an intrasubject replication design and multiple baseline procedure. Analysis of the data showed the following results: (1) The teacher, manually operating the teaching machine, was able to teach and maintain the matching-to-sample task; (2) the same autistic children did not acquire or maintain the task when taught by the machine alone; and (3) the teacher alone (without the machine) was able to teach and maintain the task. The results suggest that automated instruction may, at least, serve as a valuable aid to teachers of autistic children. However, before machines can be used without the participation of a trained teacher, further research appears necessary. Several areas, including the role of motivation in automated instructional settings, the saliency and effectiveness of reinforcers, and the importance of controlling antecedent stimulus conditions and off-task behavior are discussed as areas of primary concern in the development of automated instruction for autistic children.     

A simple method for evaluation of Rorschach Imagery Reactivity.

A general scoring system, previously developed for the analysis of pictorial associations within the paradigm of Visual Imagery Sequences, was applied in the evaluation of visual associations to memory images of Rorschach inkblots (Imagery condition) in a comparison with standard Rorschach responses (Conventional condition). The participants, 80 consecutively selected psychiatric outpatients, were divided into Clinical Reactor and Nonreactor groups, according to how productive they were of psychodynamically revealing material during insight-oriented therapy using imagery. For this simple scoring method (which does not include the customary Rorschach scores), conclusions concerning Imagery Reactivity in the Rorschach agreed with those of previous studies using a scoring system more unique to the Rorschach. The inferences drawn from statistical analysis by groups and conditions also contribute additional refinements to the understanding of the subtle interplay between defensiveness and sensitivity to imagery in determining the patterns of scorable components within the response complex. This general scoring method correctly identified 95.6% of Imagery Reactors and 100% of Imagery Nonreactors, an improvement over the 87% efficiency of the previously described, Rorschach-based method for assessing Imagery Reactivity in the Rorschach.     

An External Construct Validity Study of Rorschach Personality Variables

This study examined (a) hypothesized relationships between Rorschach variables and self-report test measures relating to nominally similar aspects of personality functioning and (b) interrelationships among Rorschach variables. Sixty-two undergraduates were administered the Rorschach, Barron Ego Strength Scale, Kaplan Self-Derogation Scale, Eagly Self-Esteem Scale, Multiple Affective Adjective Checklist (MAACL), Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and the Rotter Locus of Control Scale. Only a few of the predictions received confirmation: inanimate movement (m) correlated, as expected, with MAACL anxiety and hostility, the egocentricity index (3r + 2)/R (R = total responses) correlated significantly with self-esteem, and human movement with minus form level (M -) correlated (inversely) with ego strength. Among the unpredicted findings were some that appear inconsistent with standard Rorschach interpretation. Rorschach variables human movement (M), and experience actual (EA), generally interpreted as reflecting coping resources, related significantly with self-report measures of poor coping and of dysphoric affect. In general, the Rorschach appears better at identifying weaknesses in the ego rather than strengths.