Gender,sex roles,and attitudes toward war and nuclear weapons

The observation that men are usually more supportive of war than women had led several authors to suggest that masculinity plays a causal role in the decision to make war and stockpile nuclear arms. In order to examine the relationship between sex role orientation and attitudes towards war and nuclear weapons, gender and measures of sex role orientation were used to predict three attitudes about nuclear weapons and the use of military force. Two specific and two classes of hypotheses regarding the possible relationships among these variables were tested: masculinity, femininity, Masculinity × Femininity interaction, and Gender × Sex Role Orientation hypotheses. The results provided limited support only for the femininity hypothesis—that attitudes toward war are associated with feminine traits. However, neither masculinity nor femininity was found to be the only mediators of the gender/war attitude relationship, indicating that sex role orientation (and especially masculinity) should be given less emphasis when trying to explain the relationship between gender and attitudes toward war.The author gratefully acknowledges the helpful comments of Douglas Kenrick, Nancy Russo, and an anonymous reviewer on a earlier version of this paper.     

Sex-role attitudes across two cultures: United States and India

This study tests whether students from India hold more traditional sex role attitudes compared to students from the US, whether women from either country hold more liberal sex role attitudes than males, and whether socioeconomic and demographic factors are better predictors of sex role attitudes among women of either culture. Data were obtained in 1978 from a sample of 409 undergraduate students from three Mississippi colleges in the US and 419 undergraduate and graduate students from three educational institutions in Andhra Pradesh, India. Sex role attitudes are measured by scaling developed by Scanzoni (1975). Out of a total possible score of 100, the mean values are 69.09 for the US sample and 53.62 for the Indian sample. Differences between the means for all 20 sex role attitudes are statistically significant. Results indicate that US females and Indian females had less traditional sex role attitudes than their respective counterparts. Mother role, wife role, father role, and total sex role attitude were more traditional among males in India compared to males in the US and among females in India compared to females in the US. More traditional attitudes were held by males in India with lower educated fathers and unemployed mothers. Religion was the only variable significantly related to Indian female students. In the US, traditional sex role attitudes of males were significantly related to high maternal income and residence in urban areas. More traditional sex role attitudes among US females were related to increasing age and marital status. Stepwise analysis reveals that the most powerful explanatory factors were sex and mother's occupation among Indian students and sex, father's income, and year in college among US students. What little variance was explained was explained by more variables in the US sample, and the best model predictors explained more variance in the US sample.     

Fertility,sex role attitudes,and labor force participation

Data from the 1970 National Fertility Study were used to investigate the relationships between sex role attitudes and the childbearing and labor force participation of women. While several relevant dimensions of sex role attitudes were identified, it was found that the most crucial aspect for working and fertility was the extent to which the woman identified the female role as that of housewife and homemaker. Those having traditional definitions concerning this role were less likely to be working, and had fewer plans to work in the future. In addition, as expected, women with traditional sex role definitions had more children than others. While the orientation of the woman toward the home was the primary correlate of work and fertility, those who felt that women had little control over their lives had higher fertility than others—a relationship which could be explained partially, but not entirely, in terms of unplanned childbearing.     

Manipulation and force as sexual coercion tactics: conceptual and empirical differences

This study examines the relationship between perpetrator characteristics, situational characteristics, and type of sexual coercion tactics used to obtain sexual contact (including sexual intercourse) with an unwilling partner. Men who used manipulation or force were compared to each other and to men who engaged in only consensual sex. Participants were college men drawn from the first wave of a 5-year longitudinal study. Stepwise discriminant function analyses, univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA), and chi(2) analyses tested group differences. As predicted, men who used force reported more childhood sexual abuse, witnessed more domestic violence, were more accepting of male violence, and were less likely to endorse love as a motive for sex than men in both the manipulation and consent groups. Men in the force group were also more likely to have had a casual relationship with the woman, and to be drinking and also intoxicated during the coercive incident than men in the manipulation group. Hypothesized differences between men who used force and manipulation regarding parental physical punishment, traditional gender role attitudes, delinquency, hedonistic and dominance motives for sex, prior sexual contact, and the length of the relationship were not supported. The results suggest that types of tactic used in sexual assaults can be distinguished on the basis of person and situational variables and that knowledge of these differences can facilitate future research, as well as rape deterrent and intervention programs.     

The effect of race,sex, and career goal differences on sex role attitudes at home and at work

Male and female blacks and whites whose career goals differed as to sex role stereotypy were administered two sex role inventories. One measured attitudes toward women's expanding sex roles in the home/personal environment, while the other measured sex role attitudes in the working environment. The major finding of the present study is that black women had more traditional sex role attitudes in the home environment than white women but the same sex role attitudes about working, whereas both black and white women were more liberal in their sex role attitudes in both environments than black and white men.     

Gender Role Beliefs and Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men in Chile and the U.S.

We compared the relationship between gender role beliefs and antigay prejudice in Chile and the United States. Participants were Chilean and American university students. In Study 1, Chileans were more prejudiced than Americans, and men were more prejudiced than women. In Study 2, gender role beliefs mediated cultural and sex differences in prejudice. Chileans held more traditional gender role beliefs and were more antigay than Americans. Men were more prejudiced than women, particularly in their attitudes toward gay men. Further, sex differences in attitudes toward lesbians and gay men were completely mediated by gender role beliefs. Nationality differences in attitudes toward lesbians were completely mediated, and nationality differences in attitudes toward gay men were partially mediated, by gender role beliefs.     

Gendered personality disposition and gender role attitudes among Israeli students

In a sample of 204 Israeli university students, the author examined the relationship between gendered personality dispositions and 2 aspects of gender role attitudes: occupational sex typing and gender role stereotypes. Evaluations of occupational gender attributes were the least sex typed among participants in the androgynous group. At the same time, contrary to expectations, the participants in the undifferentiated and sex-typed groups had relatively stereotyped perceptions of occupations. However, no relationship was found between gendered personality disposition and stereotyped perceptions of gender roles. Regardless of gendered personality disposition, the women, compared with the men, had more liberal attitudes toward gender roles.     

Reliability,validity, and cross-cultural comparisons for the simplified attitudes toward women scale

This article investigates the use of the simplified version of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale with 278 American adults taken from the general population. Normative data and estimates of internal consistency reliability are reported, both for the overall sample and for selected subgroups. Females are found to have more liberal sex role attitudes than males, younger people to have more liberal attitudes than older people, and those of higher social status to have more liberal attitudes than those of lower status, supporting the construct validity of the scale. A cross-cultural comparison is also made between the scores of British and American women.     

Family adjustment,parental attitudes,and social desirability

This study examines the role of social desirability response set on the report of marital adjustment, child adjustment, and parenting attitudes. Results from 69 married couples closely replicate previous self-report findings suggesting that the more positive the report of marital adjustment, the fewer the number of child problem behaviors endorsed by parents (r = -.19(69), p less than .05). When social desirability is controlled, however, the marital-child adjustment relationship is nonsignificant. Previous reports of a global relationship between marital and child adjustment may have been inflated by individual differences in willingness to endorse problems on self-report measures. Parenting attitudes are not associated with social desirability or marital adjustment. Warmth, but not authoritarianism, is negatively correlated with child behavior problems in the home (r = -.25(69), p less than .01). The authors propose that family interaction research use a multimethod strategy to focus on circumscribed variables that influence marital and parenting behavior.     

Adults' attitudes about assignments of household chores to male and female children

Data from a 1979 national sample of 3944 adults in the United States were analyzed for the purpose of identifying traditional and nontraditional sex role assignments of household chores. Among the eight chores observed, the proportion of the sample making nontraditional assignments ranged from a high of 90% to a low of 67%. With respect to explanations of traditional/nontraditional sex roles, observations included relationships between adults' age, sex, marital, family, and economic statuses, their assignments of chores to male and female children, and their attitudes about adults' sex roles. Males, older persons, and poor persons were more traditional in assigning chores than were females, the young, and the middle class. No differences were observed in chores assigned by married and single persons, or by married persons with and without children.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1988 annual conference of the Western Social Science Association.     

Men's heterosocial skill and attitudes toward women as predictors of verbal sexual coercion and forceful rape

This study assessed whether men's heterosocial skill and attitudes toward women are related to verbal and physical sexual coercion in a nonincarcerated population. We predicted that heterosocially skilled men would be more likely than unskilled men to have engaged in verbal sexual coercion, whereas unskilled men would be more likely than skilled men to have engaged in physical sexual coercion (i.e., forceful rape). We expected an interaction, with this pattern holding only for men who accepted traditional gender roles or male sexual dominance; men who did not accept these attitudes were expected to be unlikely to have engaged in either verbal or physical coercion. To identify sexually coercive men, we administered questionnaires to 1152 male introductory psychology students. They completed anonymous self-report measures of (a) heterosocial skill, (b) attitudes toward women, and (c) involvement with verbal and physical sexual coercion. Results showed that heterosocially skilled men were more likely than unskilled men to have engaged in verbal sexual coercion, but heterosocial skill was unrelated to forceful rape. Men who accepted traditional gender roles or male sexual dominance were more likely than other men to have engaged in both verbal sexual coercion and forceful rape. There were no interactions. Theoretical issues and treatment implications are discussed.The authors wish to thank Gayla Goolsby, Trudi Zaplac, Diane Collinge, Shelley Davis, Gina Benedicto, and DiAnne Poehl. This paper is based on the second author's Senior Honors Thesis, done as part of the Texas A&M University Undergraduate Fellows Program, which provided funding.     

Sex of respondent and credit attitudes as predictors of credit card use and debt payment

Researchers have suggested there may be sex differences in attitudes towards credit card possession and use. Undergraduates, 41 men and 41 women, completed a survey regarding their attitudes towards credit, credit card use, and repayment. Analysis indicated sex played a significant moderating role between number of credit cards used and the importance of paying off monthly balances. Women possessed more credit cards than men and engaged in more frequent shopping. Number of credit cards increased with paying off of monthly balances. Data are discussed in terms of the importance of managing credit card debt in an increasingly cashless society.     

Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies

A meta‐analysis was conducted to determine whether nonexperimental studies revealed an association between men's pornography consumption and their attitudes supporting violence against women. The meta‐analysis corrected problems with a previously published meta‐analysis and added more recent findings. In contrast to the earlier meta‐analysis, the current results showed an overall significant positive association between pornography use and attitudes supporting violence against women in nonexperimental studies. In addition, such attitudes were found to correlate significantly higher with the use of sexually violent pornography than with the use of nonviolent pornography, although the latter relationship was also found to be significant. The study resolves what appeared to be a troubling discordance in the literature on pornography and aggressive attitudes by showing that the conclusions from nonexperimental studies in the area are in fact fully consistent with those of their counterpart experimental studies. This finding has important implications for the overall literature on pornography and aggression. Aggr. Behav. 36:14–20, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Premarital sexual, child rearing, and family attitudes of Iranian men and women in the United States and in Iran

Sexual, child rearing, and family attitudes of 160 Iranian immigrants in the United States (61 men, 99 women) and 97 Iranians (55 men, 42 women) in Iran were compared. Iranians in the United States in general, and women in particular, compared with their counterparts in Iran, expressed more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex and sex education, more tolerance toward homosexuality, and a greater acceptance of marital dissolution. Iranians in both countries assigned a high value to the maternal role and to family loyalty but did not endorse unrestricted freedom for youngsters. Influences of attitudinal disparity on interpersonal and family relationships are discussed, and implications for marriage counseling and family therapy are suggested.     

Sex role egalitarianism and marital violence

This study explores the link between sex role egalitarianism and marital violence using a sample of men enrolled in either substance abuse treatment programs (N=71) or in anger management programs (N=44). It was found that men in both treatment programs had very similar levels of egalitarianism and violence in their relationships. Using the combined sample, it was found that having attitudes approving of marital violence and using “severe” violence accounted for a significant portion of the variance in sex role egalitarianism, whereas use of “minor” violence did not account for significant variance in egalitarianism. These results suggest that sex role egalitarianism may be a meaningful indicator for spouse abuse.     

The Intersection of Gender and Sexuality: Sexism Shapes Men’s Same-Sex Sexuality in Terms of Self-Label Identification and Partner Choice in China

We examined how sexism related to gay and bisexual men’s preferences for same-sex top (dominant) or bottom (submissive) sexuality in China. Specifically, we determined the impacts of sexism on sexual self-label identification and requirements for a romantic partner’s sexual role among 507 Chinese gay and bisexual men. Sexism was found to significantly predict top/bottom sexual self-label: gay and bisexual men endorsing benevolent sexism (BS; ideation of women who conform to traditional gender roles) were more likely to identify as tops than as bottoms. We also noted a significant prediction of hostile sexism (HS; hostility toward women who oppose traditional roles) on partner choice: Tops and bottoms endorsing HS were more likely to require a complementary partner rather than to have no requirements. Moreover, sexism was related to sexual role prejudice, a concept derived from sexism that we defined as holding attitudes toward the gender roles of “bottoms” among gay and bisexual men that indicate inequality of sexual self-labels. In a mediation analysis of these relationships, we noted significant indirect effects of BS and HS on sexual self-label via both benevolent and hostile sexual role prejudice, as well as on requirements for a romantic partner’s sexual role via benevolent (but not hostile) sexual role prejudice. Our results suggest that traditional gender beliefs may influence negative beliefs toward other sexual roles and that both sets of beliefs, although not always consistent with each other, relate to gay and bisexual men’s sexual self-labels and requirements for a romantic partner’s sexual role.     

Love, Suspense, Sex, and Violence: Men’s and Women’s Film Predilections, Exposure to Sexually Violent Media, and their Relationship to Rape Myth Acceptance

This investigation addressed the relationship between men’s and women’s predilections for film with a love story, suspense, or sex and violence theme and how that predilection related to rape myth acceptance (RMA). Also examined was how men’s and women’s predilections, as they related to RMA, were moderated by exposure to different levels of sexually violent media based on a true story. Finally, the relationship between traditional attitudes and film predilection, as well as the relationship between film predilection and attitudes toward film editing, were investigated. Results indicate that men prefer film with sex and violence significantly more than women do, whereas women prefer love stories significantly more than men do. Those with sex and violence film predilections are more accepting of RMA than those with love story or suspense predilections. Women’s film predilections and their relationship to RMA attitudes are moderated to an extent by exposure to sexually violent media based on a true story, whereas men’s attitudes remain unaffected. Finally, those with sex and violence film predilections are less in favor of film editing than are those with suspense or love story predilections. Theoretical explanations for the findings are discussed and their implications.     

Sex role attitudes of self and those inferred of peers,performance, and career opportunities as reported by women in nontraditional vs. traditional training programs

Compared to 135 women in traditional training programs (health care — nursing assistantship), the 151 women in nontraditional training programs (trades and technology — welding, drafting, electronics engineering technology, air conditioning technology, metal fabrication, etc.) were expected to report more egalitarian sex role attitudes and to perceive their peers in the program as more egalitarian also. They were expected to demonstrate greater academic success than traditional women in these nontraditional programs. Overall support was found with the exception that nontraditional women in the nontraditional program expected more difficulties than the traditional women outside than program. These findings were interpreted as reflecting person by environment fit and the consensual validation of sex role attitudes made possible by perceived similar-minded peers. The greater difficulties foreseen by women in the nontraditional program suggested systemic discrimination in the work force outweighed person by environment fit, in the women's assessment of nontraditional career opportunities.     

Sex differences in the nature,realism, and correlates of body image

The present study examined sex differences in the nature and realism of body-image satisfaction, and the extent to which sex and sex role ideology moderated the relationships of body image to other indices of self-esteem and well-being. Accordingly, scales assessing body cathexis, self-esteem, depression proneness, and sex role ideology, as well as a questionnaire assessing perceptions of weight and dieting activities, were completed by 135 college women and 129 college men. As expected, women indicated significantly greater dissatisfaction with their bodies than did men. Women were likely to perceive themselves as overweight or slightly overweight, regardless of their actual weight, and most wanted to lose weight. Men who were dissatisfied tended to perceive themselves as underweight and wanted to gain rather than to lose weight. For both sexes, less positive attitudes to ward one's body were related to lower levels of self-esteem, although the relationship was significantly stronger for women than for men. The relationship between body attitudes and self-esteem was of approximately equal magnitude among traditional vs feminist women. For both sexes, more negative attitudes towards one's body were related to greater proneness to depression. Implications for further research are discussed.     

Does Absence Make the Heart Grow Fonder? Work-Related Travel and Marital Satisfaction

Using a sample of 961 dual-earner couples, the authors examined the relationship between work-related travel and marital satisfaction, using gender role attitudes and parental status as moderators. For women and men with children, the impact of travel is generally consistent with gender role congruence theory, which posits that marital satisfaction will be highest when gender role attitudes and gender role behaviors are congruent. Generally, when one holds traditional gender role attitudes, marital satisfaction is stable or enhanced when the husband travels, and is lower when the wife travels. Nontraditional parents are generally less happy if either member travels. The results were less predictable among couples without children in the home.