THE LANGUAGE OF PARTICIPATION AND THE LANGUAGE OF RESISTANCE1

Language and gestures define the involvement of low-status groups with authorities either as joint participation in policymaking or as conflict. Policies that seriously deprive non-elites are often politicized, encouraging the perception that all affected by them participated in their formulation. This perception is problematic and often misleading, for formal decision-making procedures chiefly reflect extant inequalities in the ability of participants to achieve their values and to influence public opinion. It is those who can exercise influence outside the context of formal proceedings who wield real power; but formal proceedings remain vital rituals, for they symbolize participation and democracy and so marshal public support and compliance. The poor lack the informal sanctions and other resources that confer influence, with the important exception that they can create disorder and thereby threaten elites; but in becoming politicized they renounce that political weapon.     

LANGUAGE INTENSITY AND RESISTANCE TO PERSUASION: A RESEARCH NOTE

Three hypotheses concerning the specific role of language intensity differentiation in both pretreatment and counterattitudinal messages were examined in two studies. The results indicate that low intensity pretreatments are more effective than either moderate or high intensity inoculations in conferring resistance to persuasion. The findings for refutational pretreatments were, therefore, not consistent with previous research. Future research in this area should be characterized by a greater degree of specificity concerning the possible effects of receiver expectations on subsequent attitude change.     

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VIOLATIONS OF EXPECTATIONS AND THE INDUCTION OF RESISTANCE TO PERSUASION

This investigation expanded and refined a model of resistance to persuasion developed by Burgoon, Cohen, Miller, and Montgomery (1978). It is argued that a logical shortcoming of this model of resistance to persuasion is its failure to incorporate the notion of confirmation and disconfirmation of receiver expectations. Support was found for the prediction that violations of induced receiver expectations and the intensity of a persuasive message are mediators of resistance to persuasion. Positive violations of expectations induce counterarguing and lead to reversals of initial positive attitudes after receipt of a second message arguing on the same side of an attitude issue. Negative violations of receiver expectations decrease the probability of counterarguing, and increase the vulnerability of people to subsequent persuasive attacks. Strong support for the predictions was obtained in this investigation. Competing explanations for the results were ruled out through the utilization of a counterbalanced design and control procedures. These results provide a partial replication of the earlier empirical evidence supporting this new model of resistance to persuasion and cannot be explained by other models of resistance to persuasion. Moreover, the findings break new theoretical ground in their explanation of findings that appear counterintuitive without reference to this theoretical rationale.     

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF A MODEL OF RESISTANCE TO PERSUASION

This investigation synthesized research from several related areas to produce a model of resistance to persuasion based upon variables not considered by earlier congruity and inoculation models. Support was found for the prediction that the kind of critical response set induced and the target of the criticism are mediators of resistance to persuasion. The more critical acts are focused on arguments presented in a persuasive message, the more likely that the critical act will not be distracting and therefore promote counterarguing which will lead people to be resistant to subsequent persuasive messages arguing on the same side of given attitudinal issue. When criticism is less central to message variables and focuses on speaker and/or delivery characteristics, distraction occurs which decreases the probability of counterarguing and induces people to be vulnerable to forthcoming persuasive messages. This is especially true when negative criticism of speaker characteristics reduces threat to present attitudes and reduces motivation to counterargue to protect privately held beliefs. A completely counterbalanced design employing several manipulation checks was created to rule out competing explanations for differential resistance to persuasion.     

CONFLICTING INFORMATION,ATTITUDE, AND MESSAGE VARIABLES AS PREDICTORS OF LEARNING AND PERSUASION1

This study examined the effects of conflicting information in two messages about the same topic on recall of, and post favorability toward the message. Three multiple regression analyses tested the relationship among conflicting information, initial attitude, attitude change, salience, message clarity, and adequacy of support in predicting recall and post favorability. Six hypotheses were supported. Both recall and post favorability were inhibited when conflicting information was present. Attitudes and message variables were significant predictors of learning and post favorability. Proactive inhibition produced more interference than retroactive inhibition. Results are discussed in terms of the interrelatedness of the learning and persuasion processes and the ability of interference theory to predict outcomes in both paradigms.     

大学生的语言学习观念与英语学习策略研究

通过问卷对606名大学生进行调查,考察其语言学习观念和英语学习策略的特点及关系。结果表明:(1)在语言学习观念上,女生比男生的英语学习动机更强,大一女生明显认为英语学习难度大,外语学能观念随年级的升高而增强,文科生比理科生认为英语学习难度大,学习动机更强;(2)在英语学习策略上,性别、年级与6种策略都有一定关系,文科生在元认知、社交、情感、补偿、认知5种策略上的运用都显著高于理科生;(3)语言学习观念与英语学习策略有密切的关系。     

THE EFFICACY OF WOMEN'S RESISTANCE STRATEGIES IN RAPE SITUATIONS

The effectiveness of women's resistance strategies for reducing the severity of sexual abuse and physical injury during sexual assaults was analyzed in a variety of assault circumstances. Data were obtained from police reports and court testimonies of 274 women (96% White, 4% Black) who either were raped or avoided rape by subsequently incarcerated violent stranger rapists. Statistical analyses showed that particular resistance strategies were effective in specific situations. Women who fought back forcefully were more likely to avoid rape than women who did not fight back, regardles of whether a waepon was present. Forceful fighting resistance was related to increased physical injury when a weapon was present, but most physical injury was caused by nonlethal weapons. Women who screamed or fled when confronted with weapons experienced less severe sexual abuse. Increased physical injury was associated with pleading, crying, or reasoning indoors. Women who used drugs or alcohol experienced more severe sexual abuse and physical injury.     

初中生数学学习策略的可控心理影响机制

运用问卷调查和访谈的方法,探讨了主要可控心理因素对初中生数学学习策略的影响机制。结果表明,所纳入的可控心理因素具有良好的代表性;可控心理因素对初中生数学学习策略的影响机制主要体现为数学学习动机、策略意识、积极归因和困难应对感对数学学习策略有显著的直接效应。研究提示,数学学习策略的教学应重视可控心理因素的作用并处理好各因素之间的关系。     

THE RELATIONSHIP OF PERSONALITY VARIABLES TO ORGANIZATIONAL WITHDRAWAL

The relationship of personality variables to turnover and absenteeism was investigated using Cattell's 16 PF. Results indicated Factors G (conscientiousness) and Q₄ (anxiety) accounted for most of the predictable variance in both indices or organizational withdrawal. The Porter and Steers "polar" hypotheses for organizational withdrawal were not confirmed except for the anxiety factor. Results are discussed in terms of Lyons'(1972) conclusions on the relationship of absenteeism and turnover and the generality of findings to other samples of employees.     

TOWARD A MESSAGE-CENTERED THEORY OF PERSUASION: THREE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF LANGUAGE INTENSITY1

Based on accumulated knowledge concerning the effects of language intensity on attitude change, a set of propositions were advanced that provide a skeletal theoretical framework. Based on the propositions, three separate studies were done to extend the predictive power of the formulation. Predicted interactions between sex of the source, situational anxiety, source credibility, and language intensity were obtained. There were also significant person perception changes as a result of the level of language intensity employed in the persuasive message. Discussion centered on the import of the new findings in formulating a message-centered theory of persuasion.     

THE LANGUAGE OF SCHIZOPHRENIA AND THE WORLD OF DELUSION

The bizarre language of schizophrenics is nowadays generally believed to be the meaningless breakdown product of a neurobiological disorder. The psychological significance of hallucinations and delusions also remains mysterious. Verbatim vignettes are presented from an advanced stage of a psychoanalytically informed treatment to illustrate that schizophrenics speak a meaningful language that is syntactically and morphologically similar to ordinary language, but is qualitatively different in terms of semantics and pragmatics. From a semantic perspective the ordinary distinctions between words, things, body states and actions are absent, creating words and sentences that are not representational or symbolic. It is a language of equivalence, immediacy and action as contrasted with a language of self-awareness, thoughtfulness, reflection and communication. From a pragmatic standpoint, because the language of schizophrenia makes no distinction between mind and world, it enables and supports delusional thinking. In order for the psychoanalyst to comprehend what the patient means, and couch interpretations in such a way as to convey the meaning he/she intends, analyst and patient must become aware of their inability to comprehend one another's languages and find a way to bridge the communication barrier.     

视觉资料的力量：说服、情感与认同

大众媒体反复灌输被选来吸引其受众注意力的视觉资料。图像不但被用来阐述新闻和突出风格,还被用在试图劝导其目标受众改变态度和行为的广告与活动中。这些包括健康、安全和慈善活动。     

THE LANGUAGE OF RIGHTS AND CONCEPTUAL HISTORY

The historical problem about the origins of the language of rights derives its importance from the conceptual problem: of “two fundamentally different ways of thinking about justice,” which is basic? Is justice unitary or plural? This in turn opens up a problem about the moral status of human nature. A narrative of the origins of “rights” is an account of how and when a plural concept of justice comes to the fore, and will be based on the occurrence of definite speech‐forms—the occurrence of the plural noun in the sense of “legal properties.” The history of this development is currently held to begin with the twelfth‐century canonists. Later significant thresholds may be found in the fourteenth, sixteenth, and eighteenth centuries. Wolterstorff's attempt to find the implicit recognition of rights in the Scriptures depends very heavily on what he takes to be implied rather than on what is stated, and at best can establish a pre‐history of rights‐language.     

音乐与语言的认知神经科学研究进展

回顾了近年来对音乐与语言的认知神经科学的研究结果.神经影像学研究表明音乐与语言可能拥有一些共同的神经机制;而对脑损伤病人的研究则表明两者可能同时拥有分离的、各自独立的神经基础.文章对这两类研究做了总结和比较,探讨了相关的理论模型,并对今后的研究趋势作出了展望.