THE UNBEARABLE HEAVINESS OF BEING

In response to Simone de Beauvoir's claim that for women ‘biology is Destiny’ Judith Butler says, ‘not biology, but culture becomes destiny’ (Butler, Judith. 1990 Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble, Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London: Routledge. [Google Scholar]. Gender Trouble, Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York and London: Routledge, 8). The Memoirs by Sharan-Jeet Shan, Kiranjit Ahluwalia, Jasvinder Sanghera and Rupinder Gill confirm that culture and gender shape women's lives and destinies. Especially, immigrant women often engage in a life-threatening struggle to change this destiny. This is not to suggest that men do not also face and transcend some of the same issues as women. In If You Don't Know Me by Now (2008), Sathnam Sanghera complains that in immigrant societies men are as trapped by culture as women but the media tends to portray them – men – as ‘beneficiaries’ rather than victims of culture. Although one would not want to create hierarchies of suffering and victimization, the memoirs considered here reveal that cultural codes do not hold men in the same kind of thrall as they do women.     

An isolation effect in serial memory for spatial information

This paper reports the first demonstration of an isolation effect or von Restorff effect (von Restorff, 1933 von Restorff, H. 1933. Uber die Wirkung von Bereichsbildungen im Spurenfeld [On the effect of spheres formations in the trace field]. Psychologische Forschung, 18: 299–342. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) in the context of a spatial-memory task: Short-term serial recall was enhanced for both the location and the serial position of one red dot presented amongst a sequence of otherwise black dots. When the serial position of the isolate was fixed, the spatial isolation effect only emerged when participants received a control block of trials before the block of isolation trials (Experiment 1). However, when the serial position of the isolate was varied across isolation trials, an isolation effect was still produced regardless of condition order (Experiment 2). It is suggested that both temporal grouping strategies and greater item-specific processing may have contributed to the enhanced retention of the isolate.     

Institutional creativity and pathologies of potential space: The modern university

Abstract

This paper proposes the applicability of object relations psychoanalytic conceptions of dialogue (Ogden, 1986 Ogden, T. 1986. The matrix of the mind, London: Karnac.  [Google Scholar], 1993 Ogden, T. 1993. “On potential space”. In In one's bones: The clinical genius of Winnicot, Edited by: Goldman, D. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aaronson.  [Google Scholar]) to thinking about relationships and relational structures and their governance in universities. It proposes that:

• the qualities of dialogic relations in creative institutions are the proper index of creative productivity; that is of, as examples, ‘thinking’ (Evans, 2004 Evans, M. 2004. Killing thinking: The death of the universities, London: Continuum.  [Google Scholar]), ‘emotional learning’ (Salzberger-Wittenburg et al., 1983 Salzberger-Wittenburg, I., Henry, G. and Osborne, E. 1983. The emotional experience of learning and teaching, London: Routledge.  [Google Scholar]) or ‘criticality’ (Barnett, 1997 Barnett, R. 1997. Higher education: A critical business, Buckingham: Open University Press.  [Google Scholar]);

• contemporary institutions' explicit preoccupation in assuring, monitoring and managing creative ‘dialogue’ can, in practice, pervert creative processes and thoughtful symbolic productivity, thus inhibiting students' development and the quality of ‘thinking space’ for teaching and research.

In this context the paper examines uncanny and perverse connections between Paulo Freire's (1972 Freire, P. 1972. Pedagogy of the oppressed, London: Penguin.  [Google Scholar]) account of educational empowerment and dialogics (from his Pedagogy of the oppressed) to the consumerist (see, for example, Clarke & Vidler, 2005 Clarke, J. and Vidler, E. 2005. Creating citizen-consumers: New labour and the remaking of public services. Public Policy and Administration, 20: 19–37.  [Google Scholar]) rhetoric of student empowerment, as mediated by some strands of managerialism in contemporary higher education. The paper grounds its critique of current models of dialogue, feedback loops, audit and other mechanisms of accountability (Power, 1997 Power, M. 1997. The Audit Society: Ritual's of verification, Oxford: Oxford University Press.  [Google Scholar]; Strathern, 2000 Strathern M. Audit cultures: Anthropological studies in accountability, ethics and the academy London Routledge 2000 [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), in a close analysis of how creative thinking emerges.

The paper discusses the failure to maintain a dialogic space in humanities and social science areas in particular, exploring psychoanalytic conceptions from Donald Winnicott (1971 Winnicott, D. W. 1971. Playing and Reality, London: Routledge.  [Google Scholar]), Milner (1979 Milner, M. 1979. On not being able to paint, New York: International Universities Press.  [Google Scholar]), Thomas Ogden (1986 Ogden, T. 1986. The matrix of the mind, London: Karnac.  [Google Scholar]) and Csikszentmihalyi (1997 Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1997. Creativity, New York: Harper Perennial.  [Google Scholar]). Coleridge's ideas about imagination as the movement of thought between subjective and objective modes are discussed in terms of both intra- and inter-subjective relational modes of ‘dialogue’, which are seen as subject to pathology in the pathologically structured psychosocial environment. Current patterns of institutional governance, by micromanaging dialogic spaces, curtail the ‘natural’ rhythms and temporalities of imagination by giving an over-emphasis to the moment of outcome, at the expense of holding the necessary vagaries of process in the institutional ‘mind’. On the contrary, as this paper argues, creative thinking lies in sporadic emergences at the conjunction of object/(ive) outcome and through (thought) processes.     

Calling the beautiful game ugly: A response to Davis

In a previous article (Kretchmar 2005 Kretchmar, S. 2005. Game flaws. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, XXXII(1): 36–48.  [Google Scholar]), I identified problems in a certain species of games and traced these harms to something I called a ‘game flaw’. Unfortunately, ‘the beautiful game’ is a member of that species. I say it is unfortunate because Paul Davis (2006 Davis, P. 2006. Game strengths. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, XXXIII(1): 50–66.  [Google Scholar]), when taking me to task for providing an argument that, in his terms, was ‘not especially compelling’, focused on the game of soccer (hereafter, football). The issue over which we contended is one of ‘time management’– that is, how game initiation, duration and closure are structured. I suggest that two basic methods for managing such requirements are available. Games take place during a stipulated amount of time or for a specified number of events. In my original article, I identified four fundamental problems that may accompany time-regulated games. In this essay, I attempt to fortify those claims against Davis's criticisms.     

On vagueness, 4D and diachronic universalism

I offer a new criticism of the argument from vagueness to four-dimensionalism [Sider 2001 Sider, Theodore. 2001. Four-Dimensionalism: An Ontology of Persistence and Time, Oxford: Clarendon Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]. The argument is modelled after an older argument for mereological universalism [Lewis 1986 Lewis, David. 1986. On the Plurality of Worlds, Oxford: Blackwell.  [Google Scholar] and may be looked upon as a tightened-up and extended version of the latter. While I agree with other critics [Koslicki 2003 Koslicki, Kathrin. 2003. The Crooked Path from Vagueness to Four-Dimensionalism. Philosophical Studies, 114: 107–134. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Markosian 2004 Markosian, Ned. 2004. Two Arguments from Sider's Four-Dimensionalism. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 68: 665–673. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] that the argument from vagueness fails precisely because of this affinity, my recipe for dealing with it is different. I reject the assumption, shared by Sider with his opponents, that synchronic composition and ‘minimal diachronic fusion’ are sufficiently similar to use considerations inspired by the analysis of the former to bear on the latter. My objection to a crucial premise of the argument from vagueness turns on the relevant aspect of dissimilarity between these two cases.     

Reuben's fall: complicating ‘goodness’ and schoolroom disobedience

This article offers a snapshot of children's sentient and relational spirituality within a moment of disobedience in a kindergarten classroom. It is a portion of a study that employed a combination of qualitative inquiry (by Eisner in 1998 Eisner, E. 1998. The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice‐Hall.  [Google Scholar]) and rhizoanalyis, adapted from the work of Deleuze and Guattari (of 1987 Deleuze, G. and Guattari, F. 1987. A thousand plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia, Edited by: Massumi, B. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.  [Google Scholar]), MacNaughton (of 2005 MacNaughton, G. 2005. Doing Foucault in early childhood studies: Applying poststructural ideas, New York: Routledge. [Crossref] [Google Scholar]). The purpose of the larger study was to present moments of kindergarten children's disobedience in order to more fully understand the complexity of each moment. Rhizoanalysis was engaged in order to open lateral paths toward new understandings and questions regarding the disobedient actions of children, and so served to destabilise and challenge the known and given texts of children's disobedience and to disrupt the assumptions often made regarding the actions and interactions of young children as ‘bad’ or ‘good’ and offer ways to ‘see’ each moment of interaction as many things – both and neither bad nor good. The moment of disobedience and discussion offered within this paper focus on the children's engagement with one another as sensory and spiritual, using Hay and Nye's notion of spirituality as awareness‐, mystery‐, and value‐sensing.     

Children's understanding of religion: Interviews with Arab-Muslim,Asian-Muslim,Christian and Hindu children aged 5–11 years

Research into children's awareness of group differences has been an active area of research for some time, with work focusing on areas such as nationality, ethnicity, gender and religion. The majority of the work in these areas has taken the cognitive-constructivist framework as a background, offering a domain-general approach to all social cognition. This paper reports a qualitative study investigating children's understanding of religion and the importance of religion, broadly following an interview schedule based on Verbit's (1970 Verbit, MF. 1970. “The components and dimensions of religious behaviour: Toward a reconceptualisation of religiosity”. In American Mosaic, Edited by: Hammond, PE and Johnson, B. 124–139. New York: Random House. (Eds.) [Google Scholar]) definition of religion. A semi-structured interview procedure was used with 58 Arab Muslim, Asian Muslim, Christian, and Hindu children aged between 5 and 11 years living in North London. Religion appeared to be highly salient to the children interviewed, and findings suggested that children's religious identity is subject to a complex pattern of influences which cannot be solely explained by either age or cognitive differences.     

IMAGINARY TALES IN THE LAND OF THE PERPETRATORS

This article explores three recent works of fiction, all concerned with what I call “imaginary tales in the land of the perpetrators”. All the writers are women, albeit of varied backgrounds and nationalities. The earliest is Marcie Hershman (American, Tales of the Master Race, 1991 Hershman, Marcie. 1991. Tales of the Master Race, New York: HarperCollins.  [Google Scholar]), followed by Gila Lustiger (German‐Jewish, Die Bestandsaufnahme, 1995, published in English as The Inventory, 2001 Lustiger, Gila. 2001. The Inventory, Edited by: Morrison, Rebecca. New York: Arcade.  [Google Scholar]) and Rachel Seiffert (British, The Dark Room, 2001 Seiffert, Rachel. 2001. The Dark Room, New York: Pantheon Books.  [Google Scholar]). Although only Lustiger is the child of a survivor, all may be counted in the ranks of the second, or even third generation, who strive, each in their way, to recreate the day‐to‐day workings of society in the lives of “ordinary folk” under the Third Reich, to pose once again that all‐consuming question: How could it have happened? Working at the intersection of history and fiction, fact and invention, imagination and memory, these novels may indicate a new and more risky trend in Holocaust literature away from the victims to the victimizers.     

The sacred geography of Dawei: Buddhism in peninsular Myanmar (Burma)

Starting point:Serge-Christoph Kolm suggests that ‘Buddhism advocating minimizing dukkha (pain, dissatisfaction)—rather than maximizing sukkha (from which “sugar” comes) may be a kind of negative welfarism’(Kolm2006 Kolm, Serge-Christoph. 2006. Macrojustice from Equal Liberty, www.ehess.fr/kolm/document.php?id = 135. [Google Scholar], 8). Christoph Fehige, after suggesting that ‘Maximizers of preference satisfaction should instead call themselves minimizers of preference frustration’, concludes that Buddha is on his side (Fehige1998 Fehige, Christoph. 1998. “A Pareto Principle for Possible People.” In Preferences, edited by C.Fehige and U.Wessels. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 518, 522).

Type of Problem:What are the common intuitions of negative utilitarianism and Buddhism?

Result:Negative utilitarianism and Buddhism share the following intuitions: Negative utilitarianism—understood as an umbrella term—models the asymmetry between suffering and happiness and therefore accords with the Buddhist intuition of universal compassion. The Noble Truths of Buddhism accord with the negative utilitarian intuition that (global) suffering cannot be compensated by happiness. Some forms of Buddhism and negative utilitarianism share the intuition that non-existence is a perfect state.     

Nietzsche’s ‘Anti-Naturalism’ in ‘The Four Great Errors’

Abstract

This paper is primarily a response to ‘analytically-minded’ philosophers, such as Maudemarie Clark and Brian Leiter, who push for a ‘naturalistic’ interpretation of Nietzsche. In particular, this paper will consider Leiter’s (2007 Leiter, B. 2007. Nietzsche’s Theory of the Will. Philosophers’ Imprint, 7(7): 1–15.  [Google Scholar]) discussion of Nietzsche’s chapter in Twilight of the Idols, ‘The Four Great Errors’, and argue that Leiter has misinterpreted this chapter in at least four ways. I provide a superior interpretation of this chapter, which argues that Nietzsche is using a transcendental style of argument to argue against a common conception of causation. I argue that Nietzsche’s ultimate aim of this chapter is to argue for ‘the innocence of becoming’ rather than, as Leiter claims, the error of free will. I argue that this anti-naturalist methodology and conclusion are in tension with Leiter/Clark’s Nietzsche, and highlights the need to pay attention to the being/becoming distinction in Nietzsche.     

Training and education for therapeutic practitionership: “Trans-modern” perspectives

In this paper I revisit the theme of therapy training, examined in this journal a decade ago in House (1996 House, R. 1996. The professionalization of counselling: A coherent ‘case against’?. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 9(4): 343–358. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]. I first outline what I mean by the term “trans-modern” in the context of debates about “postmodern” and deconstructive approaches to therapy. I then explore the configuration that therapy training might plausibly take when technological rationality's positivistic certainties are dramatically undermined, and the path to becoming a therapy practitioner coheres more closely with the trans-modern, “New Paradigm” Zeitgeist–a world-view which both acknowledges the (albeit unbalanced) contributions of modernity, yet takes us well beyond modernity's constraining limitations. To illustrate my argument I focus on and problematize the role of theory in therapy training. I conclude with some speculations about plausible paths that a trans-modern approach to therapy training might profitably take in future.     

Religious fundamentalism and primitive projective processes

In her book on the origins, nature and contemporary global significance of religious fundamentalism, Karen Armstrong cites the example of an early twentieth-century, ultra-Orthodox Jewish spirituality1 ¹Such a spirituality may be characterized as ‘fundamentalist’ inasmuch as it appeals to the inerrancy of sacred texts to legitimize conceptions of the purity of the ‘Holy Land’ as exclusively a place for prayer and the study of Scripture and not as a site for the erection of a nation state. For a brief account of the history of ultra-Orthodox, anti-Zionist spirituality from 1900 to the present, see Armstrong 2000 Armstrong K 2000 The Battle for God. Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam (London: Harper Collins)  [Google Scholar], pp.?201–217. vehemently opposed to the creation of the state of Israel. Armstrong suggests that

This rejectionist vision is utterly incomprehensible to Jews who regard the Zionist achievement as wondrous and salvific. This is the dilemma that Jews, Christians and Muslims have all had to face in the twentieth century: between the fundamentalists and those who adopt a more positive attitude to the modern world there is an impassable gulf. Rational arguments are of no avail, because the divergence springs from a deeper and more instinctual level of the mind (Armstrong 2000 Armstrong K 2000 The Battle for God. Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam (London: Harper Collins)  [Google Scholar], pp.?204–205 [my highlighting]).

This paper will try and show that Melanie Klein's depiction of primitive mental processes serves to elucidate both the nature of this ‘impassable gulf’ and the ‘deeper’ levels of psychic functioning from which it originates. By shedding a specifically Kleinian psychoanalytic and object relations light on what appears to both warrant and inform the discourse on fundamentalism, it hopes to show how individual and group formation, and the interaction between them, are profoundly influenced by unconscious processes. Such processes are shown to be characterized by mechanisms of defence against anxieties – mechanisms induced by changes that threaten existing social relationships (Jaques 1955 The Guardian (2001) (London and Manchester) 13 October  [Google Scholar], p.?479).     

Self-harm by omission: A question of skin containment

Abstract

This paper explores the phenomenon of ‘self-harm by omission’ and its relationship to other kinds of self-harming behaviour and to disturbances of psychic skin functioning (Bick, 1968 Bick, E. 1968. The experience of the skin in early object relations. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 49: 484–486. [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Process material from work with a patient ‘Kate’ is introduced to illustrate and clarify the matters under consideration. The conceptual framework provided by psychic skin theory is described, with particular reference to the defences of ‘toughening’ and ‘porosity’ and their relevance to understanding different kinds of self-harm. Arising from this work, suggestions are advanced with regard to further development and an extended range of application of a ‘skin containment’ conceptual framework.     

The ‘inseparable bond between cure and research’: clinical case study as a method of psychoanalytic inquiry

Abstract

Since Freud's own time, there has been great deal of debate about the most appropriate research methodology for investigating psychoanalytic psychotherapy [Fonagy, Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 29 (2): 129 – 136, 2003 Fonagy, P. 2003. ‘The research agenda: the vital need for empirical research in child psychotherapy’. Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 29(2): 129–136. [Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Rustin, Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 29 (2): 137–145, 2003 Rustin, M. 2003. ‘Research in the consulting room’. Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 29(2): 137–145. [Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]]. The single case study, which has a long tradition both within child psychotherapy and the wider research field, has been widely criticised as an approach to research, even while its contribution to clinical practice, the development of new ideas and teaching have been acknowledged. After reviewing the history of case study as a research method, this paper argues that there are a broad range of approaches to the study of the single case, each of which may be appropriate depending on the particular research question. Each of these approaches, however, must respond to the three perceived weaknesses of the clinical case study as a research method: the ‘data problem’, the ‘data analysis problem’ and the ‘generalisability problem’. This paper outlines the nature of these criticisms and, using many examples of actual research projects, suggests various ways in which the criticisms can be addressed, in order for the single case study to re-gain its place at the heart of psychoanalytic research.     

Empathizing and Systemizing (Un)justified Mediated Violence: Psychophysiological Indicators of Emotional Response

This article examines individual variability in empathizing and systemizing abilities (Baron-Cohen, 2003 Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: Men, women and the extreme male brain. London, UK: Penguin. [Google Scholar], 2009 Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). Autism: The empathizing &; systemizing (E–S) theory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 68–80.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) on emotional responses to mediated violence. It is predicted that these abilities influence feelings of distress and enjoyment while processing violent media and that they interact with the motives for aggressive behavior—whether the violence was justified or not. Psychophysiological measures of negative and positive valence activation and arousal were recorded for 90 participants while they were exposed to fourteen full-motion film clips that contained violence that was either justified or not by the narrative. Results show unjustified content led to greater physiological arousal and greater negative valence activation overall and to a significantly greater extent in highly empathetic viewers. Advantages of employing the empathizing—systemizing theory to mediated violence research are discussed.     

Thérèse of Lisieux From the Perspective of Attachment Theory and Separation Anxiety

Abstract

This article interprets the life of Thérèse of Lisieux within the general theoretical context of Bowlby's (1969 Bowlby, J. 1969. Attachment New York: Basic Books..  [Google Scholar], 1973 Bowlby, J. 1973. Separation New York: Basic Books..  [Google Scholar], 1980 Bowlby, J. 1980. Loss New York: Basic Books..  [Google Scholar]) attachment theory and with reference to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(text rev. [DSM-IV- TR], American Psychiatric Association, 2000 American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, , 4th ed., text rev. Washington, DC: Author.  [Google Scholar]) criteria for separation anxiety. Recent theoretical interpretations of the religious life within the context of attachment theory by Kirkpatrick (1999) Kirkpatrick, L. A. 1999. “Attachment and religious representations and behavior.”. In Handbook of attachment theory and research Edited by: Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P. R. 803–822. New York: Guilford..  [Google Scholar] and Granqvist (2003) Granqvist, P. 2003. Attachment theory and religious conversions: A review and resolution of the classic and contemporary paradigm chasm. Review of Religious Research, 45: 172–187. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] are of special relevance. Thérèse's childhood psychological experiences and her later adult experiences in the religious life are presented and discussed. It is proposed that Thérèse was able to use her childhood attachment traumas and pathological experiences of separation anxiety as a positive source of motivation in her search for and response to God.     

The Role of Comprehension Processes in Communication and Persuasion

The impact of media communications on attitude formation and change clearly depends on how the messages are comprehended. Although the role of comprehension processes in communication and persuasion has a long history in social psychology (cf. Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953 Hovland, C. I., Janis, I., & Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [Google Scholar]; McGuire, 1964 McGuire, W. J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 191–229). New York, NY: Academic Press. [Google Scholar], 1968 McGuire, W. J. (1968). Personality and susceptibility to social influence. In E. F. Borgatta & W. W. Lambert (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 1130–1187). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally. [Google Scholar], 1972 McGuire, W. J. (1972). Attitude change: An information processing paradigm. In C. G. McClintock (Ed.), Experimental social psychology (pp. 108–141). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. [Google Scholar]; Wyer, 1974 Wyer, R. S. (1974). Cognitive organization and change: An information-processing approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [Google Scholar]), it has received little attention in media research. In this article, we discuss both theory and research that have implications for how the comprehension of communication at early stages of processing can impact attitudinal responses to media communications, including print and broadcast advertising, narrative television programming, newspaper articles, political messages, and donation appeals.     

Numerical and nonnumerical estimation in children with and without mathematical learning disabilities

There are currently multiple explanations for mathematical learning disabilities (MLD). The present study focused on those assuming that MLD are due to a basic numerical deficit affecting the ability to represent and to manipulate number magnitude (Butterworth, 1999 Butterworth, B. 1999. The mathematical brain, London, , United Kingdom: Macmillan.  [Google Scholar], 2005 Butterworth, B. 2005. “Developmental dyscalculia”. In Handbook of mathematical cognition, Edited by: Campbell, J. I. D. 455–467. New York, NY: Psychology Press.  [Google Scholar]; A. J. Wilson &; Dehaene, 2007 Wilson, A. J. and Dehaene, S. 2007. “Number sense and developmental dyscalculia”. In Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Atypical development, 2nd, Edited by: Coch, D., Dawson, G. and Fischer, K. 212–237. New York, NY: Guilford Press.  [Google Scholar]) and/or to access that number magnitude representation from numerical symbols (Rousselle &; Noël, 2007 Rousselle, L. and Noël, M. P. 2007. Basic numerical skills in children with mathematics learning disabilities: A comparison of symbolic vs non-symbolic number magnitude processing. Cognition, 102(3): 361–395. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The present study provides an original contribution to this issue by testing MLD children (carefully selected on the basis of preserved abilities in other domains) on numerical estimation tasks with contrasting symbolic (Arabic numerals) and nonsymbolic (collection of dots) numbers used as input or output. MLD children performed consistently less accurately than control children on all the estimation tasks. However, MLD children were even weaker when the task involved the mapping between symbolic and nonsymbolic numbers than when the task required a mapping between two nonsymbolic numerical formats. Moreover, in the estimation of nonsymbolic numerosities, MLD children relied more than control children on perceptual cues such as the cumulative area of the dots. Finally, the task requiring a mapping from a nonsymbolic format to a symbolic format was the best predictor of MLD. In order to explain these present results, as well as those reported in the literature, we propose that the impoverished number magnitude representation of MLD children may arise from an initial mapping deficit between number symbols and that magnitude representation.     

Knowledge-How and Epistemic Value

A conspicuous oversight in recent debates about the vexed problem of the value of knowledge has been the value of knowledge-how. This would not be surprising if knowledge-how were, as Gilbert Ryle [1945, 1949 Ryle, Gilbert 1949. The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson's University Library.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]] famously thought, fundamentally different from knowledge-that. However, reductive intellectualists [e.g. Stanley and Williamson 2001 Ryle, Gilbert 1949. The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson's University Library.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Brogaard 2008, 2009 Brogaard, Berit 2009. What Mary Did Yesterday: Reflections on Knowledge-Wh, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 78/2: 439–67.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2011 Brogaard, Berit 2011. Knowledge-How: A Unified Account, in Knowing How: Essays on Knowledge, Mind, and Action, ed. John Bengson and Marc A. Moffett, New York: Oxford University Press: 136–60. [Google Scholar]; Stanley 2011a Stanley, Jason 2011a. Knowing (How), Noûs 45/2: 207–38.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2011b Stanley, Jason 2011b. Know How, Oxford: Oxford University Press.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]] maintain that knowledge-how just is a kind of knowledge-that. Accordingly, reductive intellectualists must predict that the value problems facing propositional knowledge will equally apply to knowledge-how. We show, however, that this is not the case. Accordingly, we highlight a value-driven argument for thinking (contra reductive intellectualism) that knowledge-how and knowledge-that come apart.