On the theory of a set of tests which differ only in length

This paper presents a contribution to the sampling theory of a set of homogeneous tests which differ only in length, test length being regarded as an essential test parameter. Observed variance-covariance matrices of such measurements are taken to follow a Wishart distribution. The familiar true score-and-error concept of classical test theory is employed. Upon formulation of the basic model it is shown that in a combination of such tests forming a “total” test, the singal-to-noise ratio of the components is additive and that the inverse of the population variance-covariance matrix of the component measures has all of its off-diagonal elements equal, regardless of distributional assumptions. This fact facilitates the subsequent derivation of a statistical sampling theory, there being at mostm + 1 free parameters whenm is the number of component tests. In developing the theory, the cases of known and unknown test lengths are treated separately. For both cases maximum-likelihood estimators of the relevant parameters are derived. It is argued that the resulting formulas will remain resonable even if the distributional assumptions are too narrow. Under these assumptions, however, maximum-likelihood ratio tests of the validity of the model and of hypotheses concerning reliability and standard error of measurement of the total test are given. It is shown in each case that the maximum-likelihood equations possess precisely one acceptable solution under rather natural conditions. Application of the methods can be effected without the use of a computer. Two numerical examples are appended by way of illustration. This research was supported in part by The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, under Research Grant 1 PO1 HDO1762.     

Efficiency of arithmetic operations in bilinguals as a function of language

English-Spanish bilinguals solved simple arithmetic problems and were required to respond In their preferred (P) language. the language In which they originally learned arithmetic, or In their nonpreferred (NP) language. Each arithmetic problem required one. two, or three addition operations. Reaction time was a linear function of number of operations. The intercept for the P language was lower than that for the NP language. but there were no differences In slope. The intercept difference was interpreted In terms of translation time. either as translation of the sum from the P to the NP language or as translation from an abstract representation to the NP as opposed to the P language.     

On the autonomy of mental processes: a case study of arithmetic

We define a process as autonomous if it can begin without intention, and if it can run on to completion without intention. We develop empirical criteria for determining whether a process can begin without intention, for determining whether it begins in the same way without intention as it does with intention, and for determining whether it can run on to completion without intention once it begins. We apply these criteria to assess the autonomy of the processes underlying simple mental arithmetic--the addition and multiplication of single digits--and find evidence that simple arithmetic may be only partially autonomous: It can begin without intention, but does not begin in the same way without intention as with intention and does not run on to completion without intention. This conclusion suggests there may be a continuum of autonomy, ranging from completely autonomous to completely nonautonomous.     

Human latent inhibition and the density of predictive relationships in the context in which the target stimulus occurs

In two experiments, participants were exposed to a listing of actions performed by a fictitious Mr. X, over three days of his life. For most of his actions an outcome was described, but some were not followed by any outcome. On Day 3, Mr. X performed an action (the target action) that was followed by a novel outcome. For participants in the control condition, the target action that preceded the appearance of this outcome was also novel; for participants in the latent inhibition (LI) condition, Mr. X had performed the target action on repeated occasions during Days 2 and 3, without it producing any outcome. All the participants were tested on their ability to retrieve the action performed by Mr. X prior to the target outcome. In Experiment 1, retrieval of the target action (indicating a less effective target action–outcome association) was poorer in the LI than in the control condition. In Experiment 2, reducing the proportion (the density) of nontarget actions that brought outcomes during initial training was found to reduce the size of the LI effect. These results are predicted by the account of LI put forward previously [Hall, G., & Rodríguez, G. (2010). Associative and nonassociative processes in latent inhibition: An elaboration of the Pearce-Hall model. In R. E. Lubow & I. Weiner (Eds.), Latent inhibition: Data, theories, and applications to schizophrenia (pp. 114–136). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press]. A high density of predictive relationships ensures strong activation of the expectancy that some outcome will occur when the target action is first presented; this facilitates the formation of a target action–no-event association during training in the LI condition, thus enhancing the LI effect.     

A quantitative study of the effect which a visual whole has upon its membral parts.

Zusammenfassung Ein Kreis kann in eine Ellipse mit betr?chtlicher Verschiedenheit der beiden Hauptachsen verwandelt werden, ehe er aufh?rt, anschaulieh ein Kreis zu sein. Liegt der Kreis inmitten einer kreisf?rmigen Anordnung von anderen figuren, so ist diese Schwelle noch weiter erh?ht, im Verh?ltnis 2: 3, wenn die umgebenden Figuren ebenfalls Kreise, deutlich weniger, wenn sie Ellipsen, und am wenigsten, wenn sie Quadrate sind.      

A note on the analysis of designs in which subjects receive each stimulus only once

In social psychological experiments, the manipulations of interest are often presented to subjects along with, or as part of, some stimulus. An example would be a manipulation of the verbal label associated with a stimulus photograph, in a person perception study. Ordinarily it is not possible for stimuli to be completely crossed with treatments because subjects cannot be exposed to any stimulus more than once. In such designs it is wise to counterbalance the assignment of stimuli to treatment conditions, but this gives rise to difficulties in the analysis of the experimental data. Data from such designs have frequently been misanalyzed in the published literature. This paper presents a method of constructing a counter-balancing scheme to simplify the analysis, and appropriate methods of analysis for both the simplified and the general case. It is emphasized that stimuli are generally best treated as a random factor in such designs, permitting increased generalizability, but the case where the stimulus factor is fixed is also considered.     

The role of working memory in the carry operation of mental arithmetic: number and value of the carry

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the role of phonological and executive working-memory components in the carry operation in mental arithmetic. We manipulated the number of carry operations, as previous research had done, but also the value that had to be carried. Results of these experiments show that in addition to the number of carry operations, the value of the carry is also an important variable determining the difficulty of arithmetical sums. Furthermore, both variables (number and value) interacted with each other in such a way that the combination of multiple carries and values of carries larger than one resulted in more difficult problems irrespective of the presence of a working-memory load. The findings with respect to working-memory load suggest that mainly the central executive is important in handling the number of carry operations as well as the value that has to be carried. The implications of the present findings for our views on mental arithmetic and its reliance on working memory are discussed.     

The role of working memory in the carry operation of mental arithmetic: Number and value of the carry

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the role of phonological and executive working-memory components in the carry operation in mental arithmetic. We manipulated the number of carry operations, as previous research had done, but also the value that had to be carried. Results of these experiments show that in addition to the number of carry operations, the value of the carry is also an important variable determining the difficulty of arithmetical sums. Furthermore, both variables (number and value) interacted with each other in such a way that the combination of multiple carries and values of carries larger than one resulted in more difficult problems irrespective of the presence of a working-memory load. The findings with respect to working-memory load suggest that mainly the central executive is important in handling the number of carry operations as well as the value that has to be carried. The implications of the present findings for our views on mental arithmetic and its reliance on working memory are discussed.     

Guidance counselling as a whole school responsibility in the Irish post primary sector

ABSTRACT

This paper will deliberate upon the relevance of guidance counselling as a ‘whole school’ responsibility in the context of recent policy and practice changes in the Irish post primary sector since the Government of Ireland Budget 2012. Pertinent issues including the complexities of delivering a whole school approach to guidance counselling during a period of resource rationalisation will be addressed through the findings from recent case study research [Hearne, L., Geary, T., & Martin, N. (2016). A single case study of a whole school approach to guidance counselling in an Irish post-primary school; Case report. Retrieved from University of Limerick website: http://www.ul.ie/soedu/node/1481]. A single explanatory case study methodology investigated the complex phenomenon and interventions of whole school guidance counselling in a mixed gender school in the context of increasing demands for evidence-based data and methodological sophistication in lifelong guidance [European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network. (2015a). The evidence base on lifelong guidance; A guide to key findings for effective policy and practice, extended summary. Jyväskylä: Kariteam; Hearne, L. (2009). Towards an understanding of the measurement of individual progression in adult guidance (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford; Stake, R. E. (2004). Standards-based & responsive evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage].     

On the system of representations in a group situation

Relations between the representations of group members with respect to different elements in the group set-up: The task, the others, the self and the group as a whole are analyzed from data collected in four experiments. Results show that the interrelations between these representations in the subjects' cognitive universe are determined by a combination of three separate principles which deal respectively with: 1) the degree of generality, complexity or semantic ‘globality’ of each element of the situation in the subjects' representation thereof; 2) the functional importance (particularly in determining behaviours in the situation) of each representation, as well as its centrality within the subjects' representational system. The functional importance and centrality of a given representation seem to be directly related in turn to the perceived normative character of the represented objects in terms of the group's objectives; 3) a process of social comparison between the self and others, according to which each group member tends to perceive himself as being more in harmony than the others with the norms and requirements of the situation as he perceives them. The discussion deals with the generality of the above results.     

Repetition priming and face processing: Priming occurs within the system that responds to the identity of a face

A familiar stimulus that has recently been recognized will be recognized a second time more quickly and more accurately than if it had not been primed by the earlier encounter. This is the phenomenon of “repetition priming”. Four experiments on repetition priming of face recognition suggest that repetition priming is a consequence of changes within the system that responds to the familiarity of a stimulus. In Experiment 1, classifying familiar faces by occupation facilitated subsequent responses to the same faces in a familiarity decision task (Is this face familiar or unfamiliar?) but not in an expression decision task (Is this face smiling or unsmiling?) or a sex decision task (Is this face male or female?). In Experiment 2, familiar faces showed repetition priming in a familiarity decision task, regardless of whether a familiarity judgment or an expression judgment had been required when the faces were first encountered. Expression decisions to familiar faces again failed to show repetition priming. In Experiment 3, familiar faces showed repetition priming in a familiarity decision task, regardless of whether a familiarity judgment or a sex judgment had been asked for when the faces were first encountered. Sex decisions to familiar faces again failed to show repetition priming. In Experiment 4, familiarity decisions continued to show repetition priming when a brief presentation time with encouragement to respond while the face was displayed reduced response latencies to speeds comparable to those for sex and expression judgments in Experiments 1 to 3. The results are problematic for theories that propose that repetition priming is mediated by episodic records of previous acts of stimulus encoding.     

From identified patient to identifiable group: the alchemy of the group as a whole

Group-as-a-whole theory is a relational paradigm of some complexity. Despite the growing popularity of this perspective, there is abiding confusion about the essence of group-as-a-whole practice and whether the approach attends sufficiently to members and part processes. The threefold aims of this article are to (a) show how group-centered thinking differs essentially from traditional psychodynamic theory that relies heavily on familial dynamics, interpretation, and transference analysis; (b) present the mind-set and working principles for a generic treatment that specifically utilizes collective forces generated in the context of the group matrix; and (c) compare and contrast the thrust of recent dyadic relational therapies with group therapy generally and the group-as-a-whole approach more particularly. The relationship between the whole (group) and its parts (members and what they bring) is detailed and demonstrated as it appears in the context of fused, affiliated, fragmented, and differentiated groups.