启动刺激模糊对单一探测条件下负启动的影响

以汉语单字词为材料,使用单一启动与单一探测范式,探查清楚和模糊启动汉字在呈现时间比较短暂时,能否发生负启动.结果显示,不论单一启动汉字是清楚还是模糊,也不论启动刺激的呈现时间长还是短,均未发生负启动效应.提示,启动刺激本身变模糊,即使呈现时间短暂依然能够自动微弱地激活大脑中与该词有关的表征,若不能阻止这种微弱激活的扩散也不能发生单一启动与单一探测范式下的负启动.这个结果在一定程度上扩展了Collins和Loftus(1975)所提出的激活扩散理论,也提示,启动词的激活水平和注意的抑制机制对单一启动与单一探测范式中负启动的发生同样重要.     

不同难度刺激材料的汉字特性负启动效应研究

负启动的研究是考察选择性注意中抑制机制的基本实验范式。本研究选取不同难度的刺激材料,使用经典的负启动实验范式,分别从增加目标选择难度和干扰项个数两个方面考察了大学生被试的汉字特性负启动效应。结果发现：在目标和干扰项互为形似字以及多个干扰项的情况下,被试的特性负启动效应均消失。此结果为注意的资源分配理论提供了进一步的证据。     

启动刺激含有多个靶子条件下的负启动效应

采用数字命名任务,在通常的负启动范式基础上增加启动刺激靶子数目．进行了两个实验。实验一发现,当启动刺激靶子个数为1个和2个时。出现负启动效应;当启动刺激靶子个数为3个和4个时。则不出现负启动效应。这提示靶子所获注意资源数量的作用。实验二发现．当启动刺激有2个和3个靶子时．如果未被选择来反应的靶子成为探测刺激的靶子,其反应时与控制组无显著差异。即不出现负启动。这表明在启动刺激中未被选择来反应的靶子与干扰项所受到的加工是有差别的。     

关于负启动机制的新观点

当N次试验(启动试验)中被忽略的干扰项成为N 1次试验(探测试验)中的靶子(忽略重复组)时,被试对该靶子的反应时比对无关靶子(控制组)的反应时要长,就出现了负启动效应(negative priming,NP)。从20世纪80年代中期至今,负启动现象得到了众多研究者的关注,目前已经发展成为一种较为成熟的研究范式。负启动研究改变了人们对注意机制的认识,注意不再被看成是选择靶子的单一激活过程,而是强调对于受到注意的信息和被忽略的信息的双重加工过程。     

整体-局部范式下的负启动效应

在通常的负启动范式基础上 ,以小数字构成的大数字 ,即以同时具有整体特征和局部特征的复合数字为实验材料 ,采用数字命名任务 ,将刺激画面中复合数字的数目和注意指向作为变量进行实验。大学生充任被试。结果发现 ,在单个复合数字条件下对同一客体的非注意指向的特征进行忽略重复 ,注意整体时出现负启动 ,而注意局部时不出现负启动 ;在两个复合数字条件下对启动刺激中充当干扰项的复合数字进行忽略重复 ,则注意整体与注意局部都出现了负启动。该研究表明 ,在不同注意指向时 ,整体 -局部范式下的负启动效应具有知觉组织的层次性 ,并显示出客体内选择和客体间选择对负启动的不同影响。     

基于位置和基于语义交互作用的无意识启动

采用线索-靶子范式,同时操纵刺激的位置和语义属性,考察了基于位置和基于语义交互作用的无意识启动。实验1和实验2分别要求被试完成定位任务和辨别任务。结果发现,当刺激位置属性与实验任务需求相关时,无论刺激的语义属性是否一致都产生了基于位置的启动效应;当刺激的语义属性与实验任务相关时,出现了基于位置和基于语义交互的无意识启动,即启动项和目标项的位置不同时,语义辨别任务存在启动效应;而启动项与目标项位置相同时,语义辨别任务存在着抑制趋势。研究结果表明,基于位置和基于语义交互作用的无意识启动效应仅存在于辨别任务中,而不存在于定位任务中。     

跨通道语义启动对视觉注意的影响

采用生活中的真实客体,我们考察了跨通道语义相关性对视觉注意的影响以及跨通道促进的时程。结合启动范式和点探测范式,实验1发现在听觉启动600毫秒后,被试对高相关视觉刺激的反应比对低相关刺激的反应更快,而在视觉启动下没有发现启动效应。实验2发现在启动刺激呈现900毫秒后跨通道启动效应消失。我们的研究证明了基于先前经验的视、听语义相关能够促进视觉的选择性注意。     

比例推理的过度使用及其认知机制:一项发展性的负启动研究

从抑制控制模型出发,采用负启动范式探究过度使用比例推理的认知机制。研究包括3个实验,以小学生、中学生和大学生为被试,分别考察了抑制控制在解决缺值应用题、图片推理任务中的作用,以及数字比(整数比、非整数比)是否对抑制控制过程有影响。结果发现:小学生、中学生和大学生在两类实验任务中均出现了负启动效应,但负启动量不存在年级差异;在图片推理任务中,不同数字比类型下的负启动量具有显著差异。研究结果支持了抑制控制模型的观点,即成功解决问题不仅需要掌握问题的内在逻辑,更需要对不恰当策略进行抑制;在解决问题的过程中,无论是儿童、青少年还是成人都需要抑制控制的参与,三者在抑制控制效率上没有差异;数字比类型对抑制过程有影响,但仅限于图片推理问题。     

创造性思维能力高、低大学生特性负启动效应的实验研究

本研究采用问卷法筛选出创造性思维能力高、低大学生作为被试,利用负启动实验范式考察两组大学生特性负启动效应的异同,探讨汉字特性负启动效应与创造性思维的关系。结果发现：低创造性思维能力组大学生具有显著的特性负启动效应,而高创造性思维能力组大学生则没有产生明显的特性负启动效应。     

阈下情绪启动效应

1　引言　　在传统心理学“知、情、意”三个不同方面的探索中 ,启动一直是认知研究的主要实验范式之一。近来研究发现 ,当启动刺激和探测刺激具有相同的情绪色彩时 ,被试的反应与控制组相比会有所不同 ,称为情绪启动。这一现象的存在 ,给情绪研究注入了活力 ,为情绪研究找到一种实验范式。证据表明 ,在情绪启动实验中 ,如果将启动刺激呈现时间减少到几十毫秒、十几毫秒甚至几毫秒 ,依然能观察到情绪启动效应。由于启动刺激呈现时间非常短 ,无法被有意识地觉察 ,被试根本不知道曾经呈现过启动刺激 ,故此时出现的情绪启动称为“阈下情绪启动…     

The negative priming effect: Inhibitory priming by ignored objects

A priming paradigm was employed to investigate the processing of an ignored object during selection of an attended object. Two issues were investigated: the level of internal representation achieved for the ignored object, and the subsequent fate of this representation. In Experiment 1 a prime display containing two superimposed objects was briefly presented. One second later a probe display was presented containing an object to be named. If the ignored object in the prime display was the same as the subsequent probe, naming latencies were impaired. This effect is termed negative priming. It suggests that internal representations of the ignored object may become associated with inhibition during selection. Thus, selection of a subsequent probe object requiring these inhibited representations is delayed. Experiment 2 replicated the negative priming effect with a shorter inter-stimulus interval. Experiment 3 examined the priming effects of both the ignored and the selected objects. The effect of both identity repetition and a categorical relationship between prime and probe stimuli were investigated. The data showed that for a stimulus selected from the prime display, naming of the same object in the probe display was facilitated. When the same stimulus was ignored in the prime display, however, naming of it in the probe display was again impaired (negative priming). That negative priming was also demonstrated with categorically related objects suggests that ignored objects achieve categorical levels of representation, and that the inhibition may be at this level.     

Capacity demands of automatic processes in semantic priming

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel In three experiments, we examined the effects of prime-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) and the proportion of related primes and targets (relatedness proportion, or RP) on semantic priming when the prime was either named or was searched for a specific letter. In Experiment 1, with an RP of. 50, priming occurred at SOAs of 240 and 840 msec when the prime was named, but no priming was found at either SOA when the prime was searched for a letter. In Experiment 2 the RP was either. 20 or. 80, and the SOA was set at 1, 700 msec; priming again was found in both conditions when the prime was named, but only in the RP.80 condition when a letter search task was performed on the prime. In Experiment 3, both the proportion of related trials and SOA were varied; as in the previous experiments, no priming effects were found with the letter search task for either SOA in the RP.20 condition, but the priming effect was reinstated in the RP.80 condition. These results are discussed with respect to how limited capacity resources are allocated and how they influence semantic priming effects.     

Taking a bright view of negative priming in the light of dim stimuli: further evidence for memory confusion during episodic retrieval.

A same-different letter-matching task was used to examine the effects of stimulus intensity on negative priming, which is poorer performance when target letters have been presented as distractor letters on the immediately preceding trial. In Experiment 1, stimulus intensity was manipulated between-participants, whereas in Experiment 2, it varied randomly from trial-to-trial within-participants. In Experiment 1, negative priming was equivalent for both stimulus intensities. In Experiment 2, negative priming effects were larger for repeated intensity stimuli than for nonrepeated intensity stimuli, when stimulus intensity was dim. Furthermore, for repeated intensity stimuli, negative priming effects were enhanced when the overt response required to the stimulus was repeated from prime to probe trial. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that negative priming may be due to memory confusion, rather than to inhibition of the distractor stimuli.     

汉字刺激质量与语义启动间的交互作用

本研究探讨汉字刺激质量与语义启动的相互作用,深入考察汉字识别的内在机制。实验采用真假字判断范式,实验1使用语义相关词对比率较高的实验材料,实验2使用语义相关词对比率较低的实验材料,结果发现：（1）无论语义相关词对比率高还是低,均存在语义启动效应和刺激质量效应,且汉字刺激质量与语义启动之间均存在交互作用;（2）轻度模糊刺激较重度模糊刺激受到的语义启动效应更大。结果表明,即使排除了额外反馈的作用,汉字刺激质量与语义启动之间仍存在交互作用,进一步支持交互激活模型。     

On the difference between response inhibition and negative priming: Evidence from simple and selective stopping

Negative priming is a commonly observed after-effect in studies concerning inhibition. Effects of the preceding trial are also found in other paradigms, like the stop signal paradigm. In the present study, stop signals were introduced in a negative priming paradigm and the relation between stop signal inhibition and negative priming was investigated. In Experiment 1, we used a simple stop signal task. Stopping data clearly suggest that stopping performance was not influenced by negative priming. Interestingly, on no-signal probes the negative priming effect disappeared after successful inhibition of the response on the prime trial. On the contrary, when inhibition failed, the negative priming effect remained. In Experiment 2, we used the selective stop signal task. As in Experiment 1, inhibition of motor responses was not influenced by negative priming. The hypothesis that negative priming disappeared due to a general nonspecific stop was confirmed in this experiment, as a negative priming effect was found after both successful and unsuccessful behavioral inhibition. The results of both experiments show that response inhibition is not influenced by negative priming, and that negative priming is only affected after a successful general stop.     

Inhibition and decay of motor and nonmotor priming

Motor responses can be facilitated by congruent visual stimuli and prolonged by incongruent visual stimuli that are made invisible by masking (direct motor priming). Recent studies on direct motor priming showed a reversal of these priming effects when a three-stimulus paradigm was used in which a prime was followed by a mask and a target stimulus was presented after a delay. A similar three-stimulus paradigm on nonmotor priming, however, showed no reversal of priming effects when the mask was used as a cue for processing of the following target stimulus (cue priming). Experiment 1 showed that the time interval between mask and target is crucial for the reversal of priming. Therefore, the time interval between mask and target was varied in three experiments to see whether cue priming is also subject to inhibition at a certain time interval. Cues indicated (1) the stimulus modality of the target stimulus, (2) the task to be performed on a multidimensional auditory stimulus, or (3) part of the motor response. Whereas direct motor priming showed the reversal of priming about 100 msec after mask presentation, cue priming effects simply decayed during the 300 msec after mask presentation. These findings provide boundary conditions for accounts of inverse priming effects.     

A PRP-study to determine the locus of target priming effects

Visual stimuli that are made invisible by a following mask can nonetheless affect motor responses. To localize the origin of these target priming effects we used the psychological refractory period paradigm. Participants classified tones as high or low, and responded to the position of a visual target that was preceded by a prime. The stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between both tasks varied. In Experiment 1 the tone task was followed by the position task and SOA dependent target priming effects were observed. When the visual position task preceded the tone task in Experiment 2, with short SOA the priming effect propagated entirely to the tone task yielding faster responses to tones on visually congruent trials and delayed responses to tones on visually incongruent trials. Together, results suggest that target priming effects arise from processing before and at the level of the central bottleneck such as sensory analysis and response selection.     

Selective impairment of masked priming in dual-task performance

This study investigated the impact of divided attention on masked priming. In a dual-task setting, two tasks had to be carried out in close temporal succession: a tone discrimination task and a masked priming task. The order of the tasks was varied between experiments, and attention was always allocated to the first task—that is, the first task was prioritized. The priming task was the second (nonprioritized) task in Experiment 1 and the first (prioritized) task in Experiment 2. In both experiments, “novel” prime stimuli associated with semantic processing were essentially ineffective. However, there was intact priming by another type of prime stimuli associated with response priming. Experiment 3 showed that all these prime stimuli can reveal significant priming effects during a task-switching paradigm in which both tasks were performed consecutively. We conclude that dual-task specific interference processes (e.g., the simultaneous coordination of multiple stimulus–response rules) selectively impair priming that is assumed to rely on semantic processing.     

Negative priming with numbers: No evidence for a semantic locus

Selective attention has been studied extensively using the negative priming (NP) paradigm. An important issue regards the representational level at which NP occurs. We investigated this issue by using numbers as stimuli. Because numbers have a well-defined semantic organization, which can be clearly measured by means of the distance effect, they are very suitable for testing the assumption that NP is situated at a central semantic level. Four experiments are presented in which the numerical distance between prime distractor and probe target was manipulated. The task was magnitude comparison. Target and distractor were defined on the basis of colour. In Experiment 1, all numbers were presented in Arabic format; NP was observed only with identical prime distractor and probe target, and no distance-related NP was observed. This could not be explained by a decay of inhibition since in Experiment 2 similar results were obtained with a shortened response-to-stimulus interval. Experiment 3 showed that these observations also hold for numbers presented verbally. Nevertheless, a cross-notational experiment with Arabic prime and verbal probe (Experiment 4) revealed no NP whatsoever and excluded the possibility that the absence of distance-related negative priming was the result of a fine-tuned inhibitory mechanism operating at the semantic level. The results are considered in the light of current theories of negative priming.