学会微笑

许多女性相信,美丽属于一种气质,然当我们在工作繁重状态下,心境感到压抑时,你是否保持微笑,促使自己心情好起来……     

学会观察

在我们的日常生活中,是很少能够离开观察的。在学习中,观察就更重要了。如果不会正确的观察.就难以获得知识,反而会将一些错误的东西、违背科学基本知识的现象,甚至是封建迷信的东西当为真理;在工作中,几乎每一件事情都与观察有密切的关系,好的观察能力是干好工作的基本保障:一个人以及集体若想少受挫折、少犯错误,更是离不了对多方面的情况、问题等细致地观察与分析。     

Parsing to Learn

Learning a language by parameter setting is almost certainly less onerous than composing a grammar from scratch. But recent computational modeling of how parameters are set has shown that it is not at all the simple mechanical process sometimes imagined. Sentences must be parsed to discover the properties that select between parameter values. But the sentences that drive learning cannot be parsed with the learner's current grammar. And there is not much point in parsing them with just one new grammar. They must apparently be parsed with all possible grammars, in order to find out which one is most successful at licensing the language. The research task is to reconcile this with the fact that the human sentence parsing mechanism, even in adults, has only very limited parallel parsing capacity. I have proposed that all possible grammars can be folded into one, if parameter values are fragments of sentential tree structures that the parser can make use of where necessary to assign a structure to an input sentence. However, the problem of capacity limitations remains. The combined grammar will afford multiple analyses for some sentences, too many to be computed on-line. I propose that the parser computes only one analysis per sentence but can detect ambiguity, and that the learner makes use of unambiguous input only. This provides secure information but relatively little of it, particularly at early stages of learning where few grammars have been excluded and ambiguity is rife. I consider three solutions: improving the parser's ability to extract unambiguous information from partially ambiguous sentences, assuming default parameter values to temporarily eliminate ambiguity, reconfiguring the parameters so that some are subordinate to others and do not present themselves to the learner until the others have been set. A more radical alternative is to give up the quest for error-free learning and permit parameters to be set without regard for whether the parser may have overlooked an alternative analysis of the sentence. If it can be assumed that the human parser keeps a running tally of the parameter values it has accessed, then the learner would do nothing other than parse sentences for comprehension, as adults do. The most useful parameter values would become more and more easily accessed; the noncontributors would drop out of the running. There would be no learning mechanism at all, over and above the parser. But how accurate this system would be remains to be established.     

婴儿物理因果感知能力的发展

继Michotte(1963)用两个发生碰撞的小球对成人的物理因果理解进行研究以来,许多研究者使用该碰撞情境对婴儿的物理因果感知进行了一系列的研究,并得出了许多颇有争议的结论。本文结合近几年国外对婴儿物理因果感知能力的相关研究,阐述了婴儿感知简单物理情境中的因果关系能力的发展,评价了用来解释婴儿物理因果感知的模块理论与信息加工理论,以期对婴儿期的物理因果感知有一较全面的了解。     

Perceiving Necessity

In many diagrams one seems to perceive necessity – one sees not only that something is so, but that it must be so. That conflicts with a certain empiricism largely taken for granted in contemporary philosophy, which believes perception is not capable of such feats. The reason for this belief is often thought well‐summarized in Hume's maxim: ‘there are no necessary connections between distinct existences’. It is also thought that even if there were such necessities, perception is too passive or localized a faculty to register them. We defend the perception of necessity against such Humeanism, drawing on examples from mathematics.     

Moving to Learn: How Guiding the Hands Can Set the Stage for Learning

Previous work has found that guiding problem‐solvers' movements can have an immediate effect on their ability to solve a problem. Here we explore these processes in a learning paradigm. We ask whether guiding a learner's movements can have a delayed effect on learning, setting the stage for change that comes about only after instruction. Children were taught movements that were either relevant or irrelevant to solving mathematical equivalence problems and were told to produce the movements on a series of problems before they received instruction in mathematical equivalence. Children in the relevant movement condition improved after instruction significantly more than children in the irrelevant movement condition, despite the fact that the children showed no improvement in their understanding of mathematical equivalence on a ratings task or on a paper‐and‐pencil test taken immediately after the movements but before instruction. Movements of the body can thus be used to sow the seeds of conceptual change. But those seeds do not necessarily come to fruition until after the learner has received explicit instruction in the concept, suggesting a “sleeper effect” of gesture on learning.     

Perceiving pictures

I aim to give a new account of picture perception: of the way our visual system functions when we see something in a picture. My argument relies on the functional distinction between the ventral and dorsal visual subsystems. I propose that it is constitutive of picture perception that our ventral subsystem attributes properties to the depicted scene, whereas our dorsal subsystem attributes properties to the picture surface. This duality elucidates Richard Wollheim’s concept of the “twofoldness” of our experience of pictures: the “visual awareness not only of what is represented but also of the surface qualities of the representation.” I argue for the following four claims: (a) the depicted scene is represented by ventral perception, (b) the depicted scene is not represented by dorsal perception, (c) the picture surface is represented by dorsal perception, and (d) the picture surface is not necessarily represented by ventral perception.     

Perceiving Smellscapes

We perceive smells as perduring complex entities within a distal array. However, odor theories have been recently criticized for their conception of the spatiotemporal nature of olfactory perception and the individuation of distal odors. The paper does not aim to dispute these criticisms. Rather, what will be shown is that molecular structure theory, a refinement of odor theory, can be further developed to handle these challenges. The theory is further refined by focusing on distal perception that requires considering the perceptual object as mereologically complex persisting odor against a background scene conceived of as a smellscape.     

进化心理学与生态心理学的整合：理解适宜可用性

进化心理学源自达尔文进化论,以分析心理机能及起源为主要研究目的。同样,生态心理学在Brunswik(1956)和Gibson(1979)开创引领下,探讨了有机体的知觉、判断、行为等因素在环境适应中的作用。尽管进化心理学和生态心理学都具有生物机能主义倾向,但过去研究较少探讨二者联系。该文引入适宜可用性观点来整合进化心理学和生态心理学的理论与实证研究。适宜可用性的观点认为,生存与繁衍问题中的代价与利益分析有助于特定种群的动物采取趋近或回避行为来保证潜在适宜性。适宜可用性的观点源自进化生物学中的知觉理论,它解决了认识论中许多传统问题,也整合了进化心理学和生态心理学的实验研究成果。适宜可用性的观点为新世纪的感觉、知觉、认知、情绪和决策的研究提供了新的理论基础     

Perceiving geographical slant

People judged the inclination of hills viewed either out-of-doors or in a computer-simulated virtual environment. Angle judgments were obtained by having people (1) provide verbal estimates, (2) adjust a representation of the hill’s cross-section, and (3) adjust a tilt board with their unseen hand. Geographical slant was greatly overestimated according to the first two measures, but not the third. Apparent slant judgments conformed to ratio scales, thereby enhancing sensitivity to the small inclines that must actually be traversed in everyday experience. It is proposed that the perceived exaggeration of geographical slant preserves the relationship between distal inclination and people’s behavioral potential. Hills are harder to traverse as people become tired; hence, apparent slant increased with fatigue. Visually guided actions must be accommodated to the actual distal properties of the environment; consequently, the tilt board adjustments did not reflect apparent slant overestimations, nor were they influenced by fatigue. Consistent with the fact that steep hills are more difficult to descend than to ascend, these hills appeared steeper when viewed from the top.