When Women are Urged to have Casual Sex More than Men are: Perceived Risk Moderates the Sexual Advice Double Standard

Sociocultural and biological frameworks suggest a Sexual Advice Double Standard (SADS; wherein heterosexual men are encouraged to have causal sex more than heterosexual women are) motivated by intransigent factors (e.g., patriarchy or evolved dispositions). Alternatively, people generally perceive casual sex as riskier for women, who may be discouraged from sex to protect them from stigma and danger (Rudman et al. 2013). If so, manipulating perceived risk to reduce or reverse the costs of casual sex for men and for women should eliminate or reverse the SADS, respectively. Results investigating American adults (N = 180) supported risk assessment’s explanatory power. When costs to both partners were mild, the SADS was eliminated, but when costs to men were higher, women were urged to have casual sex more than men were. The SADS emerged only when costs to women were higher. The findings have implications for gender equality and sexuality theories, but also practitioners (e.g., therapists, sex educators, and physicians). The SADS is far from intractable, but believing in rigid sexual double standards creates psychological conflict in women caught between motives to be seen as moral and sexually desirable, which negatively impacts their sexual health (e.g., Katz and Farrow 2000).     

基于面孔的印象形成:神经科学的视角

印象形成过程是心理学的经典研究主题,最近随着神经科学的兴起和脑成像技术的成熟,研究者开始从神经科学的角度审视人类的印象形成过程.印象形成主要基于三种信息,即面孔知觉,直接互动和二手信息.就面孔而言,基于面孔的印象形成更为快速和准确,其中杏仁核在其中起着重要的作用;作为对照,文章简要介绍了基于二手信息和直接互动的印象形成,它们更多涉及深思熟虑的任务,激活内侧前额皮层和颞上沟后端.印象形成的神经机制,线索之间的关系、印象形成的影响伴随着新技术的运用将会得到研究者的关注.     

情色文字与图片对大学生性倾向印象形成的启动差异

128名大学生被平均分成四个组,分别接受情色文字刺激、非情色文字刺激、情色图片刺激与非情色图片刺激,考察不同材料的情色信息会对性倾向印象形成产生怎样的启动效应。结果表明:情色文字对性倾向印象形成产生显著的正向启动效应,而情色图片对性倾向印象形成的启动没有呈现出单一方向的显著效应;男性对他人的性倾向印象形成要显著高于女性,但性别因素不对启动效应产生中介影响;接触容易令人产生性联想的情色刺激会导致个体更倾向于以性的或情色的眼光看待他人。     

Sex in the Media,Sex on the Mind: Linking Television Use,Sexual Permissiveness,and Sexual Concept Accessibility in Memory

The present study explores the interrelationships between emerging adults’ exposure to sexual depictions on mainstream television, their attitudes toward sexually permissive behaviors, and the salience (accessibility) of concepts related to sexual activity in their implicit memory. Findings indicate a small but significant relationship between increased exposure to sex on television and increased favoring of sexually permissive behaviors, when taking sexual concept accessibility into account. When taking television exposure into account, young adults who held stronger sexually permissive attitudes found it easier to access concepts of sexual activity in memory, suggesting these ideas were top-of-mind for these participants, compared to participants scoring lower on permissiveness. However, there was no direct connection between exposure to sex on television and accessibility of sexual activity in memory when accounting for permissive attitudes, suggesting that sexual permissiveness is at the center of any link between exposure and accessibility. Implications for examining sexual permissiveness as a lens for structuring sexual information in memory, as well as implications for designing sexual health messages are discussed in light of the findings.     

Effects of Exposure to Sexual Content in the Media on Adolescent Sexual Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Multitasking with Media

Young audiences frequently combine media use (e.g., television viewing) with other activities (e.g., homework); this is referred to as multitasking. This research uses longitudinal data to examine the moderating role of multitasking by examining the effects of exposure to sexual content in the media on adolescents' sexual behavior. Consistent with the predictions based on the limited capacity approach, there was a significant multitasking by exposure interaction suggesting that multitasking reduces the impact of media. More specifically, the effect of exposure to sexual content in the media on sexual behavior was significantly greater among light multitaskers than among heavy multitaskers.     

It Works Both Ways: The Relationship Between Exposure to Sexual Content in the Media and Adolescent Sexual Behavior

Using a longitudinal Web-based survey of adolescents 14–16 years of age, we estimate regression models where self-reported sexual behavior and content analytic-based exposure to sex in the media are related cross-sectionally and longitudinally. We find evidence for both cross-sectional nonrecursive and prospective longitudinal relationships even after adjusting for both established predictors of sexual behavior (e.g., physical development, having a romantic partner, parental monitoring, peer and parental norms, respondent's age) and of exposure to sexual media content (e.g., time the respondent goes to bed, extracurricular activities, television in the bedroom, total time spent with television, music, video games, and magazines). Sexually active adolescents are more likely to expose themselves to sex in the media and those exposed to sex in the media are more likely to progress in their sexual activity. These findings are consistent with others in the literature that demonstrate a causal effect of exposure to sexual content on sexual behavior but extend established results by also looking at the causal effect of sexual behavior on exposure both cross-sectionally and over time.     

品牌印象形成与改变的双重加工模型检验

为了探讨品牌印象的双重结构及其形成与改变的心理机制, 在双重加工模型理论基础上, 采用2×2×3完全随机被试间实验设计, 先后进行两个实验研究。结果显示：外显品牌印象的形成与改变遵循规则加工, 内隐品牌印象的形成与改变遵循联想加工, 说明二者是相互独立的两个心理结构, 为双重加工的双重系统观点提供了新证据。Smith和DeCoster (2000)的双重加工模型未考虑被试对信息的卷入程度对联想加工和规则加工的影响, 使其理论解释力不够, 此研究结果正好在这方面取得了进展。     

Feeling Better About Self After Receiving Negative Feedback: When the Sense That Ability Can Be Improved Is Activated

Past studies suggest that managers and educators often consider negative feedback as a motivator for individuals to think about their shortcomings and improve their work, but delivering negative feedback does not always achieve desired results. The present study, based on incremental theory, employed an intervention method to activate the belief that a particular ability could be improved after negative feedback. Three experiments tested the intervention effect on negative self-relevant emotion. Study 1 indicated conveying suggestions for improving ability reduced negative self-relevant emotion after negative feedback. Study 2 tested whether activating the sense of possible improvement in the ability could reduce negative self-relevant emotion. Results indicated activating the belief that ability could be improved reduced negative self-relevant emotion after failure, but delivering emotion management information alone did not yield the same effect. Study 3 extended the results by affirming the effort participants made in doing the test, and found the affirmation reduced negative self-relevant emotion. Collectively, the findings indicated focusing on the belief that the ability could be improved in the future can reduce negative self-relevant emotion after negative feedback.     

Adopting the Objectifying Gaze: Exposure to Sexually Objectifying Music Videos and Subsequent Gazing Behavior

We investigated the effects of exposure to sexually objectifying music videos on viewers’ subsequent gazing behavior. We exposed participants (N = 129; 68 women, 61 men) to music videos either high in sexual objectification or low in sexual objectification. Next, we measured participants’ eye movements as they viewed photographs of 36 women models with various body shapes (i.e., ideal size model, plus size model) and degree of dress (i.e., fully dressed, scantily dressed, partially clad). Results indicated that sexually objectifying music videos influenced participants’ objectifying gaze upon photographs of women with an ideal size, but not plus size, body shape. Interestingly, that effect neither differed among men and women nor depended upon the models’ degree of dress. Altogether, once primed with sexually objectifying imagery, participants looked at women’s sexual body parts more than they looked at women’s faces.     

Sex on the Shore: Wishful Identification and Parasocial Relationships as Mediators in the Relationship Between Jersey Shore Exposure and Emerging Adults' Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors

Exposure to highly sexualized television programs has been correlated with emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors. However, little is known about the variables that may mediate these relationships. The studies presented here investigated wishful identification and parasocial relationships withJersey Shore cast members as mediators in the relationship between exposure to Jersey Shore and permissive sexual attitudes. In Study 1, a secondary examination of content analysis data suggested that sex was pervasive on Jersey Shore. Analyses revealed that, on average, one sexual instance occurred every minute on Jersey Shore. The frequency of sexual instances on Jersey Shore was significantly higher than the frequency of sexual instances in other popular primetime television programs. In Study 2, data collected from a sample of emerging adults revealed a positive relationship between Jersey Shore exposure and permissive sexual attitudes mediated by participants' wishful identification and parasocial relationships with Jersey Shore cast members. Permissive sexual attitudes were positively correlated with sexual activity. Results are consistent with predictions made by cultivation and social cognitive theory. The relationships between television exposure, wishful identification, parasocial relationships, and emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors are the focus of the discussion.     

The Effects of Stereotyping on Impression Formation: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Viewing Religious Persons

We examined the effects of stereotyping on impression formation when encountering people dressed to represent a religious faith. We used stimulus photographs of eight male and female models dressed casually and a second photograph of one male and one female model in religious attire that was placed beside the control photos of models dressed casually. from each set of photographs, subjects selected a photo of the person with whom they would associate the various positive personality traits suggested by our stimulus questions. Subjects were students from a U.S. Catholic school, a U.S. public school, and a Malaysian Muslim school. All the subjects attributed more of the positive traits to photos of the models who were religiously attired than to photos of those who were casually dressed, but subjects from U.S. schools attributed more of the positive traits to the photos of religiously dressed models than did the subjects from the Malaysian school.     

Sex,Sex Roles,and Sexual Attitudes: Figure Gender in the Draw-A-Person Test Revisited

A study of 116 subjects examined the relationships among subject sex, experimenter sex, sex roles, and sexual attitudes as predictors of drawing the same-sex figure on the Draw-A-Person test (DAP). Results indicate that subject and experimenter sex are consistent and significant predictors of picture sex. Masculinity and sexual attitudes also predict but only for female picture attributes. The subjects' response to current, historically determined attitudes toward gender and gender roles must be seen as strong influences on the sex of the drawn picture. A model of some determinants of the sex of the drawn figure is offered.     

Violent Attitudes and Deferred Academic Aspirations: Deleterious Effects of Exposure to Rap Music

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of exposure to rap music on the attitudes and perceptions of young African-American males. Subjects u were exposed to violent rap music videos, nonviolent rap music videos, or no music videos (controls). They read two vignettes, involving: (a) a violent act perpetrated against a man and a woman, and (b) a young man who chose to engage in academic pursuits to achieve success, whereas his friend, who was unemployed, "mysteriously" obtained extravagant items (i.e., a nice car, nice clothes). Results indicated, first, that when compared to subjects in the nonviolent exposure and control conditions, subjects in the violent exposure conditions expressed greater acceptance of the use of violence. Second, when compared to subjects in the control condition, subjects in the violent condition 'reported a higher probability that they would engage in violence. Third, when compared to the controls, subjects in the violent exposure condition expressed greater acceptance of the use of violence toward the woman. Finally, when compared to the controls, subjects in the rap video exposure conditions were more' likely to say that they wanted to be like the materialistic young man and were less confident that the other young man would achieve his educational goals. Possible basis for and implications of these findings are discussed.     

Sex and Punishment: An Examination of Sexual Consequences and the Sexual Double Standard in Teen Programming

A content analysis was conducted to examine sexual consequences on teen programming. The sample consisted of prime-time television dramas that featured characters between the ages of 12 and 22 years. Two major goals guided the study. First, the types of sexual consequences in teen programming were investigated. Results showed that emotional and social consequences far outnumbered physical consequences. Second, the portrayal of the sexual double standard was investigated. Negative consequences were more common in scenes in which female characters initiated sexual activities than in scenes in which male characters initiated sexual activities. Implications for future content analyses and media-effects research are discussed.     

When Consonance Is Not Enough … A Study of the Use of Dissonant Music In Psychotherapy*

This study explores the thesis that dissonant music is of significant help in psychoanalytic process and treatment. The survey emphasizes the spiritual dimension of abstract music, which creates an ego-less state, affording an important treatment toward the listener's well being. The term “spiritual” as used here, refers not to organized religion, but rather to positive, evolutionary self-growth beyond the ego. The investigation involved seven individual listening sessions conducted in psychoanalytic training schools and four sessions with non-analytic minded subjects. The verbal feedback showed that dissonant music, abstract and unfamiliar sound styles, can make a meaningful contribution to healing during psychoanalytic treatment.     

Wearing Black Clothes: The Impact of Offenders' and Suspects' Clothing on Impression Formation

People usually associate the colour black with evil, aggression and badness. It was hypothesized that this association would influence people's perception, i.e. it was expected that offenders and suspects who wore black clothes would be seen as more aggressive than those who wore light-coloured clothes. In two experiments the colour of clothing of offenders and suspects was manipulated and the effect of this manipulation on observers' perception was investigated. The results indicated strong support for the hypothesis. The practical implications of the findings are discussed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.