II. Patterns of Acting Out of a Transference Neurosis by an Adolescent Boy

There are two major categories of terrorist groups: the “anarchic-ideologues,” such as the Red Army Faction, committed to destroying the world of their fathers; and the “nationalist-separatists,” such as ETA of the Basques, who carry on the mission of their fathers.

Despite the diversity of terrorist groups and causes, a comparative study indicates a remarkable uniformity of terrorist behavior. The groups draw their membership from marginal, isolated, and inadequate individuals from troubled families, so that for many, belonging to the terrorist group is the first time they have truly belonged to any group. Organized against society, the group is seen as all good and the outside society as all bad. This polarization is central to the group's ideology and is the rationale for committing violent, antiestablishment acts.     

Predator videos and electric shock function as punishers for zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are a promising animal model for studying the effects of gene–environment interactions on behavior. Two experiments were conducted to assess punishment effects of presenting predator videos (Indian leaf fish; Nandus nandus) and electric shock on operant approach responses in zebrafish. In Experiment 1, the predator video and shock stimuli were presented upon a response maintained by a single variable‐interval schedule of food reinforcement in different groups of fish. In Experiment 2, the predator video and shock stimuli were presented upon one of two response alternatives maintain by concurrently available variable‐interval schedules of food reinforcement in different groups of fish. Responding decreased when the predator video and shock stimuli were presented relative to their absence in both experiments. Moreover, responding on an unpunished alternative did not reliably decrease in Experiment 2. These results indicate that the decrease in responding resulted from the punishment contingency rather than from elicited species‐specific defense responses or conditioned avoidance. Thus, the predator video and electric shock functioned as punishers of operant behavior for zebrafish. Identifying punishers for this species could lead to research on how gene–environment interactions influence individual differences in sensitivity to punishment.     

Relationship of Ocular Latency and Speed to Intellectual Performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of specific media attributes (visual) on S performance on criterion tests measuring different levels of understanding. One hundred seventy-one Ss were assigned to one of three entering behavior groups (high, middle, and low) as a result of their performance on a pretest designed for this purpose. Ss participated in their respective presentations and received two criterion tests. Analyses indicated that (a) there was a significant relationship between entering behavior and performance on the criterion tests; (b) no significant relationship was found to exist between the level of stimulus explicitness and achievement on the criterion tests; and (c) no significant interactions were found to exist between entering behavior and type of visualization.     

Achievement of Children in Orphan Homes as Revealed by the Stanford Achievement Test

Regression surface analysis was used to examine relationships between teacher perceptions of school related behavior and children's academic achievement at different levels of intelligence, social status, and family environment. Data were collected as part of a national survey of 11-, 12-, and 15-year-old English schoolchildren (N = approximately 3000). The regression surfaces were constructed from models which examined possible linear, curvilinear, and interaction relations between the variables. In the analysis the Jackknife technique was used to adjust the significance levels. Two propositions are suggested by the results that (a) at each level of intelligence and social environment, changes in the teacher perceptions of student behavior are associated with modest changes in academic achievement, and (b) at each level of teacher perceptions, increases in intelligence and social environment scores are related to sizable increments in academic achievement.     

The ecological assessment of an autistic child

The behavior of an autistic child was observed in his natural environment. Observations were made in three settings, over approximately 6 months. Sixteen behaviors of the child and six behaviors of adults and peers were recorded. A cluster analysis was performed to identify response classes within the behavioral structure of the child and to see if correlations existed between response and stimulus events. To examine intra- and intersetting changes, Spearman rank correlations and ttests were also computed. This autistic child exhibited a diversity of behavior over time in a given setting and across settings. He persistently ignored other nonautistic children, although he was responsive to adults. Response classes reflected an inverse correlation between the child's selfstimulatory behaviors and his attentiveness to the environment. Elevated levels of adult attention were consistently related to reduced levels in most self-stimulatory behaviors. Two response classes showed inverse relationships between self-stimulatory behaviors. Reducing the frequency of some self-stimulatory behaviors might cause increases in others.This study is based on a dissertation submitted by the first author to The University of Tennessee in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. The research was conducted under the chairmanship of the second author. The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. Edward E. Cureton for his help with the statistical analyses.     

Indiscriminate mothering as a contextual factor in aggressive-oppositional child behavior: “Damned if you do and damned if you don’t”

Fifty-two mother-child dyads took part in a parent training program to modify coercive, antisocial child behavior. Prior to intervention, scores on 14 measures of mother-child interaction and on an index of maternal community contacts (known as insularity) were obtained for each dyad. This index was used to divide the sample into two groups (noninsular) n=21; insular n=31). The interactional measures were then compared between the groups. Insular mothers were more aversive and indiscriminate than noninsular mothers in their use of aversive behavior toward their children, while their children were more aversive than noninsular children, especially in response to aversive maternal behavior. It was concluded that research and therapeutic work with deviant families should focus not only on immediate family interactions but also on the extrafamily environment in which these interactions take place.The research data reported in this paper were generated with support of Grant No. R01-1068-58 from the National Institute of Mental Health, Crime and Delinquency Section. The first author conducted the research while supported by a grant from the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, and the Swiss National Fund for Scientific Research.     

What Counts as Behavior? The Molar Multiscale View

Because the definition of behavior changes as our understanding of behavior changes, giving a final definition is impossible. One can, however, rule out some possibilities and propose some others based on what we currently know. Behavior is not simply movement, but must be defined by its function. Also, our understanding of behavior must agree with evolutionary theory. I suggest 4 basic principles: (a) only whole organisms behave; (b) behavior is purposive; (c) behavior takes time; and (d) behavior is choice. Saying that parts of an organism behave is nonsense, and, moreover, evolutionary theory explains the existence of organisms mainly through their adaptive behavior. Behavior is purposive in that behavior is shaped by its consequences, through an organism''s lifetime or through interactions with the environment across many generations of natural selection. Behavior takes time in that behavior is interaction with the environment that cannot take place at a moment. Moreover, at a moment in time, one cannot definitely identify the function of behavior. Identification of an activity requires a span of time. Behavior is choice in the sense that a suitable span of time always includes time spent in more than 1 activity. Activities include parts that are themselves activities on a smaller time scale and compete for time. Thus, behavior constitutes time allocation. An accounting problem arises whenever any behavior is attributed to multiple consequences. In the molar multiscale view, this raises the question of whether 2 activities can occur at the same time. The question remains open.     

Relationship of Fan Identification to Determinants of Aggression

Abstract

Fan identification refers to the psychological connection that individuals have with sport teams. This study sought to determine whether fans possessing different levels of identification respond differently to the antecedents to aggressive spectator behaviors that are addressed by the theory of planned behavior. Fans of four professional sport teams (N = 231) were placed in one of three groups based on their scores for fan identification strength. Consistent with hypotheses, highly identified fans felt less control over their behavior at games than moderately identified fans and lowly identified fans. Contrary to hypotheses, however, neither attitudes towards aggression nor subjective norms on aggression differed between identification levels. Discussion centers on the relevance of the findings for the control of different types of aggression.     

Marshaling administrative data to study the prevalence of mental illness in assault on law enforcement cases

A substantial body of literature has investigated many issues surrounding police encounters with persons with mental illness. This paper focuses on a specific type of encounter – individuals with mental illness charged with assaulting officers because of their behavior during a psychiatric crisis – and uses administrative data to examine its prevalence in one state. Results suggest that individuals with mental health histories comprise a small but meaningful percentage (c. 9%) of assault on law enforcement charges, and c. 10% of these charges have an offense date within 14 days of an emergency mental health custody order, increasing the likelihood that psychiatric symptoms influenced their behavior at the time of the offense. Further results describe different categories of relevant charges, charge classifications, final dispositions, and sentences. Results are discussed in the context of outcomes for persons with mental illness and law enforcement as well as the role and limitations of forensic mental health assessment in these cases. The paper concludes with a call for similar data collection across jurisdictions.     

The Desk or the Bed?

Assertions that studying is done best at a desk rather than on a bed are largely untested. In the present study the GPA of students working at their desks was compared with that of students studying on their beds. There was no difference in the GPA's of the two groups. The assumption that there is a single type of study environment optimal for all students appears unwarranted. Since a sizable number of college students use their beds and even the floor for studying, the use of softer and more comfortable furniture in libraries and study halls deserves consideration.     

The generalization of newly acquired behaviors by parents and child across three different settings

The generalization of newly learned behaviors to different settings on the part of an autistic child and his parents was investigated by means of a multiple baseline design. Contingency management techniques were taught to the parents while they interacted with their child in a training apartment equipped with observation facilities. In order to assess whether the parents generalized the use of these techniques, data were gathered at their own home. Data were also gathered in the child's school in order to ascertain whether changes brought about in the child's behavior in the training apartment generalized to the school situation. It was concluded that the child's behavior was responsive to the contingencies of each particular environment. Generalization did not occur until the contingencies and stimulus cues were specifically designed to promote a change in behavior in each setting.     

Effects of differential reinforcement on the behavior and self-esteem of children with emotional and behavioral disorders

Students in a residential special school for children with emotional and behavioral disorders participated in a study designed to reduce their levels of inappropriate behavior. The residential care staff rated the students' behavioral problems and their class teachers rated their overt self-esteem pre and post intervention. In addition, the students completed self-ratings of their self-esteem. The students were divided into two groups, experimental and control. A multiple baseline across behaviors design was used to assess behavioral changes in the experimental group. Both groups received tangible rewards to the same level but only the experimental group received them contingent upon behaving appropriately. Results showed that the experimental group students made substantial reductions in their levels of inappropriate behavior, which were maintained at a three-month followup. Also, ratings of their behavioral problems by residential child care staff suggested that this improvement in behavior had generalized beyond the classroom to the residential setting. However, no significant differences were found between the pre- and post-intervention ratings of their self-esteem or teacher ratings of their overt self-esteem.     

Childhood Healthcare Experience,Healthcare Attitudes,and Optimism as Predictors of Adolescents’ Healthcare Behavior

Late adolescence and early adulthood is a time when people establish many of their life-style behaviors. Thus, in order to promote optimal health, it is important to identify factors predictive of young adults’ healthcare behavior. This study evaluated the relationship between measures of childhood healthcare experience, healthcare attitudes, and optimism with young adults’ healthcare behavior in a sample of college students (n = 100). Results suggested that prior healthcare experience, attitudes about healthcare, and optimism are associated with current healthcare behavior. In addition, the relation between childhood healthcare experience and current healthcare behavior was moderated by optimism, such that those who reported both more negative childhood healthcare experiences and low levels of optimism reported the least adaptive healthcare behaviors and those who reported the most positive childhood healthcare experience and the highest levels of optimism reported the most adaptive healthcare behavior.     

A Comparative Analysis of the Effects of Alienation on Public and Private School Females

The levels of alienation of American female school students (N = 431; 256 public, 175 private) were assessed to determine the extent of the influence of the school environment on the student's level of alienation and the dimensions of isolation, normlessness, and powerlessness. It was hypothesized that substantially different school settings would have no significant effects because student alienation is influenced by a series of complex environmental factors. The Dean Alienation Scale (1961) was used to assess levels of alienation. There were no significant differences in terms of total alienation and powerlessness. Private school students, however, were more isolated (p < .001) and public school students had higher levels of normlessness (p < .05).     

Irrational Beliefs in Employees with an Adjustment,a Depressive,or an Anxiety Disorder: a Prospective Cohort Study

It remains unclear if patients with different types of common mental disorders, such as adjustment, anxiety and depressive disorders, have the same irrational ideas. The aim of this prospective cohort study (n = 190) is to investigate differences in level and type of irrational beliefs among these groups and to examine whether a change in irrational beliefs is related to symptom recovery. Irrational beliefs (IBI) and symptoms were measured at four points in time: at baseline, after 3, 6 and 12 months. Results showed that diagnostic groups differed in their level of irrational beliefs and this effect remained over time. Highest levels of irrationality were observed in the double diagnosis group, followed by the anxiety disorder group and the depression group. Participants with adjustment disorders showed the lowest levels of irrationality, comparable to a community sample. We did not find differences in the type of irrational beliefs between diagnostic groups. The level of irrationality declined over time for all diagnostic groups. No differences in decrease were observed between diagnostic groups. The magnitude and direction of change in irrational beliefs were related to the magnitude of recovery of depressive, anxiety and stress symptoms over time. These results support the application of general cognitive interventions, especially for patients with a depressive or an anxiety disorder.     

Staff management procedures and changes in the distribution of nontargeted activities by residential staff members: A secondary analysis

Staff management procedures are increasingly used to improve quality of care in residential facilities for individuals with mental retardation. Typically, residential staff members are prompted to increase and then maintain their frequency of activities within one or more target categories of behavior (e. g., training residents) and are regularly fed back on their performance. There is, however, no evidence as to what are the effects of staff management procedures on other, nontargeted activities of residential staff. Six groups of residential staff members (n=49) and 58 individuals with severe and profound levels of mental retardation participated. Observational data on staff behaviors were collected within eight mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories. When a procedure of staff management was in effect, a statistically significant increase in the time spent on the target categories of stimulative custodial care and training was associated with a statistically significant (a) increase in time spent on organization, (b) decrease in time spent on routine custodial care, and (c) decrease in time being engaged in off-task behavior. There were no statistically significant differences found with respect to staff members' time spent on housekeeping, in offering individuals recreational activities, and in taking rest.     

Individual and collective problem-solving in a foraging context in the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica

In this paper we investigate the flexibility of foraging behavior in the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica, both at the individual and collective levels, following a change in the physical properties of their environment. We studied in laboratory conditions the changes occurring in foraging behavior when a height constraint was placed 1 cm above part of the trail linking the nest to the foraging area. We found that the size and shape of the fragments of foraging material brought back to the nest were significantly modified when the constraint was placed on the trail: independent of their size, forager ants cut smaller and rounder fragments in the presence of a height constraint than in its absence. This size adjustment does not require any direct sensory feedback because it occurred when the ants cut fragments in the foraging area; no further cutting was done when they encountered the constraint. This points to the existence of a template that ants store and use as a reference to adjust their reach while cutting. Remarkably, despite the decrease in the foraging material brought to the nest per capita the colony was still able to improve its foraging performance by doubling the number of transporters. This study illustrates the flexibility of foraging behavior exhibited by an ant colony. It provides a rare example of insects finding an intelligent solution to a problem occurring in a foraging context, at both the individual and collective levels.