中国文化下伴侣身高偏好的性别二态性研究

本研究首次考察中国文化下伴侣身高性别二态性偏好,验证Pawlowski潜在伴侣身高偏好条件性假设,并探讨性别角色对身高偏好的影响。结果表明：（1）选择不同身高搭配组的男女身高均有显著差异,低个男性和高个女性会选择和自已身高接近的伴侣高度。（2）男性对伴侣身高要求比女性更宽容。（3）不同性别角色类型被试对身高偏好无显著差异。     

The effects of perceptual pretraining on concept identification and preference

The effects of perceptual pretraining on preferences and concept identification performance in five- and eight-year-old Ss were investigated. The results indicated that perceptual pretraining facilitated performance on a concept identification task with a non-preferred relevant cue for the five-year-olds, but not for the eight-year-olds. However, perceptual pretraining did not affect preference in either age group and Ss were as consistent in their preference responding before and after perceptual pretraining as was a control group that had not received perceptual pretraining. Preferences were highly consistent in both age groups over a one week period. Perceptual pretraining was interpreted to increase the usability of the less preferred dimensions for the younger Ss, and to leave the affective preference response unaltered in both groups.     

面孔参照或观察者参照：性别二态线索、面孔吸引力与表情对正视面孔偏好的影响

本研究探讨了性别二态线索、面孔吸引力和表情对正视面孔偏好的影响。实验1基于面孔参照,被试普遍偏好正视面孔;相对男性化/厌恶和生气/低吸引力的面孔,被试更偏好女性化/高兴和中性/高吸引力的正视面孔;实验2基于观察者参照,总体并未表现出正视偏好;对低吸引力/中性表情/男性化面孔更偏好斜视面孔。     

Listening,Watching, and Reading: The Structure and Correlates of Entertainment Preferences

ABSTRACT People spend considerable amounts of time and money listening to music, watching TV and movies, and reading books and magazines, yet almost no attention in psychology has been devoted to understanding individual differences in preferences for such entertainment. The present research was designed to examine the structure and correlates of entertainment genre preferences. Analyses of the genre preferences of more than 3,000 individuals revealed a remarkably clear factor structure. Using multiple samples, methods, and geographic regions, data converged to reveal five entertainment‐preference dimensions: Communal, Aesthetic, Dark, Thrilling, and Cerebral. Preferences for these entertainment dimensions were uniquely related to demographics and personality traits. Results also indicated that personality accounted for significant proportions of variance in entertainment preferences over and above demographics. The results provide a foundation for developing and testing hypotheses about the psychology of entertainment preferences.     

The do re mi's of everyday life: the structure and personality correlates of music preferences

The present research examined individual differences in music preferences. A series of 6 studies investigated lay beliefs about music, the structure underlying music preferences, and the links between music preferences and personality. The data indicated that people consider music an important aspect of their lives and listening to music an activity they engaged in frequently. Using multiple samples, methods, and geographic regions, analyses of the music preferences of over 3,500 individuals converged to reveal 4 music-preference dimensions: Reflective and Complex, Intense and Rebellious, Upbeat and Conventional, and Energetic and Rhythmic. Preferences for these music dimensions were related to a wide array of personality dimensions (e.g., Openness), self-views (e.g., political orientation), and cognitive abilities (e.g., verbal IQ).     

Preferences for Spousal Support Among Individuals With Cancer1

Although it is known that individuals have preferences for different forms or amounts of social support from others when dealing with life events, such preferences have not been subject to extensive empirical examination. We examined preferences for spousal emotional and instrumental support, as well as preferences for spousal control-encouraging responses, among 151 individuals with cancer. Dispositional and situation-specific factors were placed into a hypothetical model predicting support preferences. Results confirmed predictions: Preferences for emotional and instrumental aspects of support were related to dispositional (affiliative need), person (gender), and contextual (disease impairment) variables. As predicted, higher affiliative need predicted higher preference for emotional support. However, functional impairment did not predict preferences for more instrumental support, and this variable only predicted preferences for more emotional support among female patients. Individuals’ preferences for control encouragement from their spouses were associated with attributions of personal responsibility for solving general life problems and indirectly associated with internal locus of control. These results provide an initial conceptual model for understanding cancer patients’ preferences for support.     

Age and food preferences influence dietary intakes of breast care patients.

Identifying major influences on food choice is an important component of nutrition intervention research. Sensitivity to the bitter taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and self-reported preferences for meats, fats, vegetables, and fruit were examined in 329 female breast care patients. Intakes of fat, saturated fat, fiber, folate, and vitamin C, established using 4-day food diaries, were the chief health outcome variables. The strongest predictor of food preferences was age. Preferences were linked to food intakes. Older women consumed less energy and saturated fat and more dietary fiber and vitamin C than did younger women. Age-related decline in taste sensitivity to PROP was associated with increased liking for bitter cruciferous vegetables. Age-associated changes in food preferences and eating habits have implications for the dietary approach to cancer prevention and control.     

Framing and conflict: aspiration level contingency, the status quo, and current theories of risky choice.

The effect of positive versus negative frames on risky choice was examined for a variety of scenarios and risks. Preferences in the positive domain were strong and mainly risk averse, with notable exceptions. Preferences in the negative domain, however, were marked by their inconsistency, shown both by an overwhelming lack of significant majority preferences and a surprisingly strong tendency of individual subjects to vacillate in their negatively framed choices across presentations. This finding is accounted for by a proposed aspiration level contingency in which aspiration levels are systematically set to be more difficult to achieve in the face of a perceived loss than a gain. The implications of the results, and the aspiration level contingency, are explored with respect to current theories of risky choice, including Kahneman and Tversky's (1979) prospect theory and Lopes's (1987, 1990) security-potential/aspiration theory.     

Preferences,Welfare, and the Status-Quo Bias

Preferences play a role in well-being that is difficult to escape, but whatever authority one grants to preferences, their malleability seems to cause problems for any theory of well-being that employs them. Most importantly, preferences appear to display a status-quo bias: people come to prefer what they are likely rather than unlikely to get. I try to do two things here. The first is to provide a more precise characterization of the status-quo bias, how it functions, and how it infects commonly accepted theories of well-being. The second is to give an alternative characterization of an agent's preferences that succeeds in avoiding the status-quo bias.     

The transience of constructed preferences

A large body of research suggests that preferences are constructed rather than merely accessed in the course of making decisions. The current research examines the stability of constructed preferences over time. Preferences for various factors relevant to a job choice were measured prior to presentation of the job‐choice task, at the point of decision, and again following a delay. It was found that relative to baseline pre‐decision levels, preferences shifted to provide stronger support for the emerging decision. Preference changes proved to be transient, receding to baseline after 1 week (Experiment 1), and even within 15 minutes (Experiment 2). These findings, which can be interpreted in terms of decision‐making by constraint satisfaction, suggest that preferences are constructed to serve the decision at hand, without constraining the decision maker in future decisions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Inquiry mode, occupational stress, and preferred leadership style among American elementary school teachers

The relationship between teachers' cognitive styles and the kind of leadership style they prefer and the types of occupational stress they experience was explored by obtaining self-reports from 70 elementary school teachers. Analytic teachers preferred principals who were task rather than relationship oriented. Preferences in leadership style appeared to be related to subjects' tendencies to perceive and evaluate situations in particular ways. Compatibility with a principal's leadership style may have depended on how closely the style matched a teacher's fundamental affective and cognitive characteristics.     

Piece of cake? Allocating rewards to third parties when fairness is costly

Reactions to third-party inequality were investigated in three experiments. In Experiment 1, 52 undergraduates allocated money between themselves and two others. Preferences for equal and unequal distributions were also rated. The results show that people are averse to inequalities between themselves and others, and to inequalities between others. Post-experimental ratings indicate that egocentric equality, third-party equality, and max–min preferences are important motives. The findings were replicated in Experiment 2, where 74 undergraduates allocated compensation for a previously conducted task, and in Experiment 3, where 112 participants rated preferences. In these experiments random determination of rewards to third parties altered participants’ behavior and preferences. The results indicated that random determination decreases the importance of all fairness motives while increasing the importance of monetary payoff. While people still care about economic equality under these conditions, contextual factors, such as perceived responsibility for unfair outcomes, seem to alter the impact of fairness.     

IDENTIFYING REINFORCERS FOR PERSONS WITH PROFOUND HANDICAPS: STAFF OPINION VERSUS SYSTEMATIC ASSESSMENT OF PREFERENCES

We evaluated a systematic means of determining stimulus preferences among seven profoundly handicapped persons. Preferences were determined by observing student approach responses to individual stimuli. Results indicated that there were differential stimulus preferences across the multiply handicapped participants. However, results of the systematic assessment did not coincide with the results of a more traditional, caregiver-opinion method of assessing student preferences. A second experiment was then conducted with five participants to evaluate whether stimuli that were assessed to consistently represent preferences would function as reinforcers in skill training programs. Results indicated that stimuli that were systematically assessed to represent student preferences typically functioned as reinforcers when applied contingently. However, preferred stimuli as reflected by caregiver opinion did not function as reinforcers unless those stimuli were also preferred on the systematic assessment. Results are discussed in terms of assisting profoundly handicapped persons by (a) improving the effectiveness of training programs by increasing the likelihood of using stimuli that have reinforcing value and (b) increasing the overall quality of life by providing preferred stimuli in the routine living environment.     

The detection of slow stimulus movement in 2- to 5-month-olds

Preferences for moving over static bars were assessed in 8-, 16-, and 20-week-old human infants. The display consisted of two adjacent horizontal bars one of which moved with one of four velocities (0.70, 1.4, 2.8 or 5.6 degrees/s) through one of four distances (11, 22, 44, or 88 arcmin) before reversing and traveling in the other direction at the same velocity. No significant preferences for motion were obtained at 8 weeks. At both 16 and 20 weeks of age, however, preferences for motion were determined exclusively by the velocity of the movement and were unaffected by the excursion of the bar. The minimum velocities that elicited significant preferences for motion were 5.08 degrees/s and 2.32 degrees/s at 16 and 20 weeks of age, respectively. The more attentive 20-week-olds, however, showed significant preferences for motion above a velocity of approximately 1.8 degrees/s. The addition of static reference bars had little influence on these preferences for motion in 20-week-olds; preferences were again related exclusively to the velocity of the bar's movement. The results are discussed in terms of the development of motion-sensitive mechanisms within the visual system.     

Similarity of outcomes, interdependence, and conflict in dating relationships

Dating couples (N = 59) participated in a longitudinal study of hypotheses derived from interdependence theory. Whether each partner's activity preferences and similarity of preferences, weighted by liking, would predict joint activity participation was examined. Preferences explained participation better than similarity, and own preferences predicted better than other's preferences. We hypothesized that conflict would increase with the strength of preferences but would decrease with similarity. The hypothesis concerning similarity was confirmed for some activities. Participation, similarity, and conflict explained relationship satisfaction and stability, but participation predicted better for men, whereas conflict and similarity predicted better for women. The findings support the theory but suggest that interdependence problems vary by activity type and gender. Three patterns are discussed: turn taking, unresolved competition, and cooperation.     

Facial averageness and attractiveness in an isolated population of hunter-gatherers

Average faces possess traits that are common to a population. Preferences for averageness have been found in several types of study of both real and computer-manipulated faces. Such preferences have been proposed to be biologically based and thus should be found across human populations, though cross-cultural evidence to date has been limited. In this study we examined preferences for averageness in both the West and in an isolated hunter-gatherer society, the Hadza of Northern Tanzania in Africa. We show that averageness is generally preferred across faces and cultures, but there were no significant preferences for averageness in European faces by Hadza judges. The different visual experience of the two cultures may explain the differences in preferences. While Westerners have visual experience of both European and African faces, the Hadza are limited in their experience of European faces, potentially leading to a lack of preference for averageness in this group because of the lack of a representation of the 'norm' of European faces.     

How valuable is a well‐crafted design and name brand?: Recognition and willingness to pay

Preferences for similarly designed consumer products, evaluated blind and branded and also with and without prices, were tested in a consumer setting. The consumer's perceptual experience led to preference of the well‐crafted high‐priced option. This preference was enhanced by priming consumers with background information about the brand, perhaps causing the subjects to guess which choice was the well‐known brand before evaluation. Preferences for that choice increased again when brand names were visible during evaluation. When actual prices were added to the evaluations, preferences for the well‐known brand were very robust to high prices, indicating the strength of the brand name. Using the least preferred option and the lowest price as an anchor, the consumers' price threshold to pay for the preferred design and the brand name was computed. Attempts to explain and predict individual differences of choices using measures of inherent design acumen, prior experience, and purchasing behavior were largely unsuccessful. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Embryonic olfactory learning in frogs.

We examined the effect of embryonic olfactory experiences on behaviour after hatching in two species of anuran amphibians, Rana temporaria and Rana sylvatica. Odorants (orange and citral) injected into the egg were "learned" by the embryo and subsequently preferred by tadpoles after hatching. The observed preferences were specific to the odours experienced prior to hatching, and tadpoles discriminated between the odour experienced as embryos and a novel odour. The acquired preference was maintained after metamorphosis for those individuals that exhibited a preference as tadpoles. Preferences of tadpoles were also influenced "naturally" by odours present in the water surrounding the developing embryos. The experimentally induced olfactory preferences did not appear to influence the exhibition of sibling recognition abilities. The study represents the first demonstration of "embryonic" learning in amphibians, and the functions and importance of early olfactory learning for amphibians are discussed.     

Scaling pigeons' choice of feeds: bigger is better.

Preferences of hungry pigeons among 10 grains and pellets were analyzed using a Thurstone scaling procedure. The recovered scales were positively correlated with size of the feed. The correlations improved when the Thurstonian assumption of equal-sized discriminal dispersions (Case V) was replaced with the assumption of proportional-sized dispersions (Case VI), as entailed by Weber's law. The correlations weakened when the experiments were conducted with the pigeons close to their free-feeding weights, where the probability of sampling alternative grains increased. In the final experiment, exposure to a large pellet shifted the preferences between two smaller pellets.     

A Quantitative Analysis of Marriage Selection in a Small Group

Abstract

The relationship between teachers' cognitive styles and the kind of leadership style they prefer and the types of occupational stress they experience was explored by obtaining self-reports from 70 elementary school teachers. Analytic teachers preferred principals who were task rather than relationship oriented. Preferences in leadership style appeared to be related to subjects' tendencies to perceive and evaluate situations in particular ways. Compatibility with a principal's leadership style may have depended on how closely the style matched a teacher's fundamental affective and cognitive characteristics.