Employment Counselors' Perceptions of Client Needs

This study measures the differences in types of client needs perceived by various categories of counselors, the types of needs they attempted to help their clients gratify, and the needs that were viewed as gratified. Eighteen counselors and 697 clients (or their records) were used in the study. A five-category need classification guideline was used by three outside judges to categorize the list of needs compiled by the counselors; agreement among the judges was such that the classification system was deemed appropriate for this study. Differences in need categories were compared using a chi-square formula and Yates' correction for small frequencies. Significant findings and conclusions are noted and suggestions for further studies are given.     

Talking About Safe Sex: The Role of Expectations and Experience1

We examined how affective expectations and objective experience influenced female college students' (N= 69) evaluations of discussions of safe‐sex practices and willingness to engage in future discussions. Participants interacted with a confident male confederate (positive experience) or a nervous one (negative experience). Positive experiences produced more positive evaluations and greater willingness to participate in the future. Expectations were manipulated after the discussion by telling participants that discussions became easier over time (positive expectations) or telling participants nothing (neutral expectations). Independent of experience, positive expectations also resulted in more positive evaluations and greater willingness. Similar results were obtained 2 weeks later. Findings are discussed in terms of previous studies of affective expectations and implications for safe‐sex education programs.     

Student Counselors' Perceptions of Ethical Client Referrals

The 2014 ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling Association, 2014 ) distinguishes between competence‐based and value‐based referrals. This phenomenological research explored student counselors' (N = 10) perceptions of client referrals across a range of cognitive developmental positions. Findings indicated nuanced understandings of competence, values, referral processes, responsibilities of supervisors, and learning environments. Implications for counselor education and supervision are discussed.     

Satisfying Friendship Maintenance Expectations: The Role of Friendship Standards and Biological Sex

The ideal standards model predicts linear relationship among friendship standards, expectation fulfillment, and relationship satisfaction. Using a diary method, 197 participants reported on expectation fulfillment in interactions with one best, one close, and one casual friend (N = 591) over five days (2,388 interactions). Using multilevel modeling, our study found that hypothesized relationships were moderated by participant sex. For males, ideal standards had a curvilinear relationship with expectation fulfillment, where higher standards were associated with less fulfillment, but both expectation fulfillment and standards directly predicted satisfaction. For females, ideal standards linearly predicted expectation fulfillment, but an interaction between standards and fulfillment predicted satisfaction. Implications for the relationship between ideal standards and sex on friendship maintenance and satisfaction are discussed.     

Gender Role Expectations of Disgust: Men are Low and Women are High

Little is known about the gender-based stereotypes of the emotion of disgust. We hypothesized that when addressing core (gross-out) disgust specifically, men would be perceived as lower in disgust matching masculine roles and women would be perceived as higher in disgust consonant with feminine gender roles. In Study 1, we modified and validated the Gender Role Expectations of Pain graphical scale (GREP, Robinson et al. 2001) to address disgust and gave it and a disgust sensitivity scale to 136 (48 men) undergraduates from the northeastern United States. Rating disgust sensitivity of themselves and stereotypical men and women, both genders rated men low in disgust sensitivity compared to a typical woman and women high in disgust compared to a typical man. A significant trend for men higher in masculinity to be less willing to show their disgust was also seen. This exact pattern of significant results was found in an additional sample of 134 students (37 men) from the northeastern U.S. on an online version of the GREP. Study 2 examined gender role expectations for comparison emotions of anger and amusement in a different set of undergraduates from the northeastern U.S. Anger showed a trend toward an opposite pattern of ratings than for disgust; no gender biases were expected or seen for amusement, a control emotion. Thus, the stereotypical profile of high disgust reported for women did not merely reflect general overarching gender-based stereotypes of emotion, but gender-based expectations specific to core (gross-out) disgust. We suggest awareness of gender role expectations of disgust may play a role in observed gender differences reported for disgust.     

Sex Role Expectations in Children's Vocational Aspirations and Perceptions of Occupations

To study sex role expectations, 120 boys and girls from three age groups—preschool, second grade, and fifth grade—in two socioeconomic levels were asked to name their vocational aspirations and to choose whether a man, woman, or both could do the work in 30 occupations depicted in a slide-tape series. Results indicated that sex typing was present in the way their aspirations conformed to traditional sex roles, with a significant relationship (p <.001) between sex typing of aspirations and sex of the respondents. Significant differences in responses to the occupational slides were found on the variables of sex (p <.01), grade level (p <.001), and socioeconomic level (p <.05), with greater sex typing indicated by boys than girls, by preschool children than by older children, and by lower to lower-middle class children than by middle to upper-middle class children. The study revealed a disparity between many children's perceptions of occupations as ones in which both sexes could work and their own personalized, sex-typed aspirations.     

Predictors of Coping with Work Stress: The Influences of Sex,Gender Role,Social Desirability,and Locus of Control

This investigation examined the influence of 4 personal attributes—sex, gender role, social desirability, and locus of control—as predictors of coping with work stress. Participants were 208 employed adult students (154 females and 54 males), primarily European Americans (90.4%) from working-class backgrounds. Theresults indicated that men were more likely to use alcohol and women more likely to use direct action. Femininity and/or masculinity scores predicted control-related coping butwere unrelated to escape-related coping. High social desirability scores predicted direct action coping, whereas low scores predicted alcohol use. In terms of locus of control, an internal orientation predicted help-seeking and positive thinking, a powerful others orientation predicted avoidance/resignation, and a chance orientation predicted alcohol use.     

性别、性别角色和性别观念对大学生人格特征的影响

通过对北京市5所大学552名大学生的调查,探讨性别、性别角色类型和性别观念类型对大学生人格特征的影响。结果表明:(1)性别角色和性别观念比生理性别对大学生人格特征的影响更大。(2)双性化大学生具有更多积极的人格特征;传统型大学生具有较高的面子;反传统型大学生具有较高的宜人性和较低的面子;冲突型大学生具有较高的神经质、防御性和较低的宜人性、灵活性;未分化型大学生具有较高的宜人性和较低的神经质。     

Biological Sex and Psychological Gender as Predictors of Routine and Strategic Relational Maintenance

The current study contributes to 2 growing areas of research: one distinguishes between routine and strategic relational maintenance behaviors, and the other concerns the relative utility of biological sex and psychological gender as predictors of communication behaviors. Specifically, we sought to uncover sex and gender differences in routine and strategic maintenance and to test the relative strength of each as predictors of routine and strategic maintenance. Survey data were collected from 189 individuals in romantic relationships. Results indicated only one sex difference; women use routine openness more than men do. However, femininity was positively associated with the routine use of advice, conflict management, and openness. Masculinity was positively associated with the strategic use of openness and tasks. Femininity was not associated with strategic maintenance, and masculinity was not associated with routine maintenance. The value of distinguishing between sex and gender to explain how individuals function in relationships is discussed.     

Relationship Between Counselors' Clinical Hypotheses and Client Ratings of Counselor Effectiveness

The authors assessed the relationship of counseling students' hypothesis formation skill levels to counseling effectiveness. Hypothesis rating scales were selected to assess skill in using a comprehensive range of client data, integrating multiple client dimensions, and forming questions for hypothesis testing. Results indicated that higher ratings of hypothesis formation skill were associated with higher client ratings of counselor effectiveness. A combination of four hypothesis skill ratings predicted more than 60% of the variance in total Counselor Rating Form-Short version (CRF-S) scores, and one or more hypothesis formation skills were predictive of each CRF-S subscale score.     

Ethnicity, Acculturation, and Religiosity as Predictors of Female College Students' Role Expectations

The present study was designed to examine ethnicity, acculturation, and religiosity as predictors of European American and Korean American evangelical female college students' role expectations. Fifty-seven European American and 37 Korean American single women, who ranged in age from 17 to 24 years, completed a demographic questionnaire, a role expectation measure, three religiosity measures, and an acculturation measure. The results indicated a significant negative correlation between fundamentalism and role-sharing expectations for European American women and a significant positive correlation between level of acculturation and role-sharing expectations for Korean American women. The results suggest that fundamentalism is a stronger predictor of role expectations than religious commitment in European American women and that acculturation is a more accurate predictor of role expectations than generation in the United States among Korean American women.     

Changes in Predictors of Gender Role Ideologies Among Women: A Multivariate Analysis

Using data from the National Opinion ResearchCenter's General Social Surveys for 1974-1994, weanalyze changes in gender role ideology among women inthe U.S. We focus on women tied to previous research indicating increasing labor force participationamong various groups of women such as those withpreschool children and those of Hispanic origin, and thepurported egalitarian impact of labor forceparticipation on gender role attitudes. The General SocialSurveys include 9833 women who responded to the genderrole questions, with 1132 black (11.5%) and 351 Hispanic(3.6%) women. Our results refine earlier bivariate findings about the impact of specific types oflife experiences and family power dynamics on women'sviews about appropriate roles for men and women. Mostimportantly, we find that there may be an ubiquitous shift toward more egalitarian gender roleattitudes among women in the U.S. regardless of theirindividual characteristics and circumstances.     

Gender orientation and the Bem Sex Role Inventory: A psychological construct revisited

In 1973, Constantinople revolutionized the conceptualization of male and female sex roles when she advanced that masculinity and femininity were not opposite ends of a unidimensional continuum but rather independent constructs. This gave rise to androgyny theory, which advanced that individuals could be both masculine and feminine, and that in fact, the most healthy gender orientation was one containing elements of both. Nearly two decades after the development of the androgyny theory and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), one of its most popular measures, it seems prudent to reexamine the androgyny construct and its measurement. This paper does just that. Within the context of a predominantly middle-class, Caucasian population, this study uses factor analysis, reliability estimates, and measures of population agreement to assess the continuing validity and reliability of the BSRI and androgyny theory. While reinforcing the reliability of the BSRI, results raise both methodological and conceptual questions regarding the BSRI and the operationalization of androgyny.     

Effect of Client Expectations on the Counseling Relationship

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect upon an initial interview of positive and negative client expectations for counseling. 30 subjects or clients were randomly assigned to 3 groups (1 positive expectation group, 1 negative expectation group, and a control group). Following a 30-minute counseling session, the counselors and clients were asked to evaluate the relationship that had been established. Despite pre-counseling differences in client expectations, no significant differences were found in the relationships established.     

Client Vocational Interests as Predictors of Client Reactions to Counselor Intentions

It was hypothesized that client vocational interest scores would predict client reactions to counselor intentions in Hill and O'Grady's (1985) process model. Twenty-four volunteer undergraduate clients (17 women, 7 men) assigned to counseling treatment with 24 doctoral students (14 women, 10 men), reviewed 3 videotaped sessions recording intentions and reactions, respectively. Results indicated that client vocational interests were predictive of reactions clients reported in response to counselor intentions. Issues of working with persons with various vocational interests, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Sex Role Identity, Androgyny, and Sex Role Transcendence: A Sex Role Strain Analysis

This paper first reviews three different theoretical constructs concerning the psychological significance of sex role related characteristics in personality functioning: sex role identity, androgyny, and sex role transcendence. A new conceptual analysis concerning sex-typing, sex role strain analysis, is presented. According to this analysis, the relationship between sex role related personality characteristics and psychological adjustment, especially self-esteem, is moderated by two variables: perception of the ideal member of the same sex, and sex role salience. These two variables', taken in conjunction with real self-concept, generate five sex role strain outcomes. The constructs of sex role identity, androgyny, and sex role transcendence are interpreted in terms of this sex role strain analysis. The implications of this analysis for current research and for understanding the dynamics of both individual and social change in sex roles are briefly described.     

Predicting Expectations About Counseling: Psychological Factors and Gender Implications

The authors replicated and extended prior research regarding the relations among stages of change and expectations about counseling for actual clients. They added testing the predictive effects of personal growth orientation and gender for clients' expectations about counseling. Results indicated that personal growth orientation and gender contribute to understanding clients' expectations about counseling and that these effects may interact. Prior counseling experience was not an important predictor of these expectations for men or women.     

Evaluating Genetic Counseling: Client Expectations,Psychological Adjustment and Satisfaction with Service

Periodic evaluations of genetic counseling services are useful for determining the effectiveness of counseling in meetings its psycho-educational aims, as well as identifying where improvements to the service may be made. This study aimed to evaluate the genetic counseling services provided by Genetic Services of Western Australia (GSWA) to determine the impact of counseling on client expectations, satisfaction with the service, and psychological adjustment, defined as wellbeing and perceived personal control (PPC). A total of 122 clients participated in a self-administered survey conducted pre- and post-counseling. Client expectations of the service as a means of providing information were met, and opportunities for counselors to meet client’s expectations of psychological support were identified. Furthermore, counseling was found to maintain and enhance psychological wellbeing of clients. The role of counseling in facilitating the development of PPC was a key contributor to a high sense of satisfaction in clients.     

Gender and Sex Role Differences in Group Decision-Making Social Interactions: A Behavioral Analysis1

Sex role formulations assume relationships between role orientation and adjustive social behavior. However, few studies have examined behavioral differences with respect to both gender and sex role orientation in realistically complex social interactions. In the current study, groups composed of four male and four female “representatives” from each sex role category (masculine-typed, feminine-typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated) were presented with two group decision-making tasks. Group interactions were videotaped and subjects' behavior was rated on social skill variables. Analyses of variance revealed gender differences with males performing more actively than females, especially when the content of the decision-making task involved more historically male-oriented topics. However, when subjects' group behavior was examined in relation to their sex role orientation, androgynous and masculine-typed persons of both sexes performed in a more active, instrumental manner than feminine-typed or undifferentiated persons. Further, correlational analyses indicated that females' masculinity scores were substantially associated with ratings of effectiveness in the decision-making groups. Implications of these findings are discussed.