The effects of perceptual pretraining on concept identification and preference

The effects of perceptual pretraining on preferences and concept identification performance in five- and eight-year-old Ss were investigated. The results indicated that perceptual pretraining facilitated performance on a concept identification task with a non-preferred relevant cue for the five-year-olds, but not for the eight-year-olds. However, perceptual pretraining did not affect preference in either age group and Ss were as consistent in their preference responding before and after perceptual pretraining as was a control group that had not received perceptual pretraining. Preferences were highly consistent in both age groups over a one week period. Perceptual pretraining was interpreted to increase the usability of the less preferred dimensions for the younger Ss, and to leave the affective preference response unaltered in both groups.     

Stimulus interaction and transfer of discrimination in children

Two discrimination learning experiments on third- and fourth-grade children are reported. In Expt I, Ss received either simultaneous or successive pretraining followed by simultaneous or successive transfer tasks in which an irrelevant dimension was varied either between or within settings. With the incorporation of a response-produced cues proposal, a modified version of the Hull-Spence theory (C. C. Spiker, Psychological Review, 1970, 77, 496–515) accounted for 81.2% of the variance of the group means and provided a satisfactory method of both quantifying and manipulating the mechanisms of associative transfer, even when the dimensions of pretraining and transfer differed. Because simultaneously pretrained Ss performed more as was expected than did successively pretrained Ss, it was hypothesized that Ss have an extraexperimental tendency to respond to dimensions varying within settings. This hypothesis was supported by the results of Expt II, in which an extensive shaping procedure was used for simultaneous, successive or control pretraining tasks followed by a successive transfer task in which the arrangement of two irrelevant dimensions was manipulated.     

The effects of visually represented cues on learning of linear function rules

The effects of visually represented weight (absence or presence of a series of five weights: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 g) and context cues (verbal alone, verbal plus graphic, or verbal plus pictorial) for a concrete weighing operation on the acquisition rate of three linear function rules were investigated along with a nonspecific transfer control condition in a rule learning paradigm. Multivariate analyses of variance of the time, instance, and error measures indicated that the graphic and pictorial context combined with the weight cue were more effective for the faster acquisition of the coefficient rule (a·F = S) than other conditions; that the weight and the context cues were independently effective for the faster acquisition of the coefficient rule (F + b = S); and that the observed effects diminished when transferred to the last complex linear function rule task (a·F + b = S), although training on the first two rules facilitated the acquisition of the last one as compared to the control. The findings were interpreted in terms of the notion of vividness of the image mediators the fourth-grade Ss apparently developed and utilized for the acquisition of the first two rules.     

The verbal label: Mediator or classifier?

Three experiments on the role of verbal labels and perceptual cues in concept attainment are reported. Ss were kindergarten and second-grade upper-middle-class children. The results indicated that when Ss learned to associate two labels (or two perceptual cues) with each stimulus no positive transfer resulted, despite the fact that one of the labels (or cues) was relevant to solution. When one label only (or one perceptual cue) was associated with each stimulus, substantial positive transfer was observed. The effects of verbal labeling and perceptual cuing were identical.On the basis of these finding the authors reject the hypothesis that labels give rise to representational responses which act as mediators, and instead propose a new hypothesis, that labels and perceptual cues facilitate performance because they facilitate the division of the stimulus set into subsets which are correlated with the response systems the subjects are expected to learn.     

Development of relational learning: Effects of instruction and delay of transfer

Preschool children were trained on a color relevant oddity problem by one of three methods: increased salience of the oddity relationship, instruction on the solution rule, or a combination of increased salience and rule instruction. The youngest Ss solved the training problem when the solution rule was provided but not under the salience procedure. The two older groups solved in all conditions and errors decreased with age. The generality of the solution was determined by performance on a form relevant transfer task. The youngest Ss made fewer errors on the transfer problem following rule instruction training than following training in the combined procedure. The intermediate age group made fewer errors when the transfer task was administered one week after training than one minute after training. The transfer problem was easily solved by the oldest Ss and performance was independent of training procedure and amount of delay. These results were interpreted as reflecting developmental differences in relational concept learning.     

Eye movements of children, adults, and elderly persons during inspection of dot patterns

The effectiveness of three fading and two nonfading procedures were compared in training kindergarten children on an oddity problem in which shape was the relevant dimension. The fading procedures employed supplementary cues which were gradually eliminated during training. The cues included either saturating the odd stimulus with a red color, saturating the nonodd stimuli with a red color, or varying the degree of illumination of the nonodd stimuli. One nonfading group received training on a structurally simpler oddity problem prior to transfer to a more complex oddity problem, and a second nonfading group received the standard oddity training procedure. While significant differences in acquisition were not obtained between training groups, the oddity task performance and the results from a test of dimensional observation revealed that the fading procedures were differentially effective in transferring Ss′ observation from the dimension of the fading cue to that relevant for solution of the oddity problem.     

Specificity of Task Constraints and Effects of Visual Demonstrations and Verbal Instructions in Directing Learners' Search During Skill Acquisition

In the present study, the efficacy of visual demonstrations and verbal instructions as instructional constraints on the acquisition of movement coordination was investigated. Fifteen participants performed an aiming task on 100 acquisition and 20 retention trials, under 1 of 3 conditions: a modeling group (MG), a verbally directed group (VDG), and a control group (CG). The MG observed a model intermittently throughout acquisition, whereas the VDG was verbally instructed to use the model's movement pattern. Participants in the CG received neither form of instruction. Kinematic analysis revealed that compared with verbal instructions or no instructions, visual demonstrations significantly improved participants' approximation of the model's coordination pattern. No differences were found in movement outcomes. Coordination data supported the visual perception perspective on observational learning, whereas outcome data suggested that the modeling effect is mainly a function of task constraints, that is, the novelty of a movement pattern.     

Age effects in backward visual masking (Crawford paradigm)

Fifteen Ss in each of four age groups (5-, 10-, 16-, and 22–23-years old) received backward visual masking. Group effects occurred at longer ISIs indicating slower prerecognition processing for younger Ss. In a second experiment 19-, 35-, and 55-year-old Ss were administered backward visual masking under the identical procedures of Exp. 1. The oldest Ss performed significantly worse than 19- and 35-year-old Ss, which did not differ significantly from each other. The general methodological features of both studies, as well as the obtained relationships were discussed.     

The Effectiveness of Student Canvassers1

Student E s delivered persuasive communications against U.S. involvement in S.E. Asis to community residents in the residents' homes. The S s received either a written communication (a pamphlet), or a verbal communication (a talk with a student E), or, on successive occasions, both. A control group received neither communication. Later all the Ss were approached by other student Es with a relevant opinion inventory. At this time they were also offered a choice of contrasting petitions to sign. The attitude measure reflected no difference as a result of the written communication, and a negative persuasion effect for the verbal communication. Also Ss signed significantly fewer petitions, whether pro or con, after the vcrbal communication. The pragmatic implications of these results are discussed as they relate to student canvassers in the community.     

Children's implicit attitude acquisition: Evaluative statements succeed,repeated pairings fail

From the earliest ages tested, children and adults show similar overall magnitudes of implicit attitudes toward various social groups. However, such consistency in attitude magnitude may obscure meaningful age‐related change in the ways that children (vs. adults) acquire implicit attitudes. This experiment investigated children's implicit attitude acquisition by comparing the separate and joint effects of two learning interventions, previously shown to form implicit attitudes in adults. Children (N = 280, ages 7–11 years) were taught about novel social groups through either evaluative statements (ES; auditorily presented verbal statements such as ‘Longfaces are bad, Squarefaces are good’), repeated evaluative pairings (REP; visual pairings of Longface/Squareface group members with valenced images such as a puppy or snake), or a combination of ES+REP. Results showed that children acquired implicit attitudes following ES and ES+REP, with REP providing no additional learning beyond ES alone. Moreover, children did not acquire implicit attitudes in four variations of REP, each designed to facilitate learning by systematically increasing verbal scaffolding to specify (a) the learning goal, (b) the valence of the unconditioned stimuli, and (c) the group categories of the conditioned stimuli. These findings underscore the early‐emerging role of verbal statements in children's implicit attitude acquisition, as well as a possible age‐related limit in children's acquisition of novel implicit attitudes from repeated pairings.     

A developmental comparison of the processing of two types of visual information

Simple geometric forms and spatial position markers were tachistoscopically presented to Ss from four age groups (ranging from five years to adult) who responded by recreating the visual array with magnetic tokens.The basic findings were: (a) Ss remembered item positions better than identities; (b) no asymptote of position recall was reached by any age group when up to five position markers were presented; (c) when required to process identity information, position memory suffered, younger Ss showing the greatest decrement; (d) with unlimited viewing time, the pattern of results relating identity and spatial recall was not altered; (e) recall was better for the locations of position markers than for locations of geometric items.The results supported an hypothesis of separate processing mechanisms for spatial location and identity information. Improvement with age seems to result from an increasing ability to integrate the functioning of these separate mechanisms.     

Specificity of task constraints and effects of visual demonstrations and verbal instructions in directing learners' search during skill acquisition

In the present study, the efficacy of visual demonstrations and verbal instructions as instructional constraints on the acquisition of movement coordination was investigated. Fifteen participants performed an aiming task on 100 acquisition and 20 retention trials, under 1 of 3 conditions: a modeling group (MG), a verbally directed group (VDG), and a control group (CG). The MG observed a model intermittently throughout acquisition, whereas the VDG was verbally instructed to use the model's movement pattern. Participants in the CG received neither form of instruction. Kinematic analysis revealed that compared with verbal instructions or no instructions, visual demonstrations significantly improved participants' approximation of the model's coordination pattern. No differences were found in movement outcomes. Coordination data supported the visual perception perspective on observational learning, whereas outcome data suggested that the modeling effect is mainly a function of task constraints, that is, the novelty of a movement pattern.     

Effects of behavioral training on the functioning of a profoundly retarded microcephalic teenager with cerebral palsy and without language or verbal comprehension: A case study

In previous investigations (Jacobson, Berger, Bergman, Millham and Greeson, 1971; Jacobson and Greeson, 1972), it was reported that as a result of the use of a behavior modification program, preschool children from poverty backgrounds demonstrated rapid conceptual acquisition. In addition, the Ss increased from the dull-normal to the normal range of intellectual functioning within approximately 20 hr of program participation. Since the increases in IQ found were most pronounced for children of lowest IQ (IQs = 46–83), the investigators hypothesized that the program would prove to be useful with Ss of greater cognitive and behavioral deficits than the initial population investigated.The present study reports the use of a variant of the conceptual acquisition program with an institutionalized, profoundly retarded microcephalic teenager with chronic brain syndrome and cerebral palsy. Prior to the study the boy demonstrated neither language nor an ability to comprehend and follow verbal directions.     

Relation between verbal recall and visual recognition of the same stimuli in young children

Five-year-old children (N = 112) were shown drawings of common objects three times either as a naming-and-learning task or as a preference task (incidental learning). A verbal recall test followed by a class- and item-recognition test, scaled to reflect the accuracy of item recognition, were given either 2 min or two weeks after presentation. Intentional learning with naming led to better immediate recall than incidental learning, but the recognition and delayed recall scores were equal for the two learning conditions. The probability of verbal recall of object names was in each case uncorrelated with the accuracy of visual recognition of the same objects by the same Ss. The results are closely similar to those obtained with adult Ss by Bahrick and Boucher (1968).     

Perceptions of Peer Sexual Harassment Among High School Students

Perceptions of peer social–sexual interactions were examined in a group of high school students (N=150). Participants were presented with six brief vignettes that described three types of sexual harassment between adolescent peers: physical, verbal/visual, and derogatory. Two vignettes were written for each type of behavior to reflect either a sexually explicit or implicit behavior. Participants responded to Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale and the Attitudes toward Women Scale for Adolescents (AWSA), and then rated the sexually harassing nature of the behaviors. Sexual harassment ratings varied as a function of the type of behavior and the sexual explicitness with which it was displayed. Although consensus was reached regarding the sexually harassing nature of both the sexually implicit and explicit physical forms of behaviors, only when the verbal/visual behavior was explicitly displayed was it perceived as sexually harassing. Interactions among self-esteem, gender attitudes, and type of behavior were also noted. Irrespective of the explicitness with which it was displayed, rater characteristics were influential for both the verbal/visual and derogatory forms of harassment.     

Do the effects of behaviour modification programs endure?

In a previous study, Jacobson, Bernai and Lopez (1973) reported the results of an investigation in which a profoundly retarded microcephalic teenager without language or verbal comprehension participated in a behaviour modification program. The objective of the program was to facilitate conceptual learning. As a result of participation in the program, the boy acquired behavioural, conceptual, and linguistic skills.The purpose of the present study was two-fold. The first objective was to perform a follow-up investigation 9 months after the termination of the original study, in order to learn whether the effects of the behaviour modification program had endured or were extinguished. The second objective was to investigate the boy's capacity for further learning by having him participate in a second behaviour modification program, this one a language acquisition program. The investigators hypothesised that since the S had acquired verbal behaviour without receiving direct linguistic training (the nonspecific adaptive effects phenomenon; see Murray and Jacobson, 1971). the S would acquire far greater language usage if he were placed in a behavioural program that trained language skills directly. It should again be noted that the S possessed no meaningful speech during the first 18 yr of his life prior to participation in the Conceptual Development Program.     

Group interpersonal skills training in a natural setting: an experimental study.

This study assessed effectiveness of group interpersonal skills training conducted in a natural setting with nonanalogue clients. Subjects (Ss) in a behavioral-training condition received 4 hr of instruction consisting of modeling, behavioral rehearsal, coaching, feedback and reinforcement. Training focused on positive and negative social responses and on initiating interactions, as well as reacting to interactions initiated by others. Subjects in a discussion-control condition engaged in focused discussion of interpersonal concerns but received no experiential practice. Within a pre-test-post-test control group design, subjective and objective measures were used to assess training effects. When compared to Ss involved in group discussion. Ss participating in group behavioral training revealed greater pre- to post-test changes on selfreported probability of engaging in selected interpersonal responses and on objective measures of eye contact, speech duration, positive affective responses, use of no-statements, compliance, refusals and requests for new behavior. Support for generalization of training is presented and methodological issues are discussed.     

Taste-aversion retention: An animal experiment with implications for consummatory-aversion alcoholism treatments

Inquiries into the longevity of illness-induced aversions (TAs) in animals are relevant to consummatory-aversion (CA) treatments of human alcoholism. The range of nausea reactions that accompanied the relapses of some alcoholics who had acquired alcohol aversions during covertsensitization (verbal aversion) alcoholism treatment has implicated CA forgetting as one probable contributor to recidivism. CA forgetting is operationalized as aversion diminution during postconditioning periods in which Ss abstain from contact with the target substance. TAs of varying strengths were induced in groups of Sprague-Dawley rats that received low, medium or high doses of the illness-inducing drug cyclophosphamide following saccharin-solution ingestion. TA retention was assessed following saccharin-free intervals of 2–40 days. Each Ss' retention interval was followed by 30 days of two-bottle preference testing, thereby additionally permitting an assessment of TA extinction following differing degrees of TA forgetting. Low-dose Ss displayed moderate strength TAs that were forgotten within 20 days and that had little resistance to extinction when testing began shortly after conditioning. Medium-dose Ss displayed stronger TAs having greater resistance to both forgetting and extinction. Unlike these low- and medium-dose TAs, high-dose TAs were impervious to aversion degradation as a result of forgetting. This finding is interpreted as supporting the attempted induction of intense nausea during covert-sensitization and chemical aversion (emetic therapy) alcoholism treatment. Other related conditioning procedures that may contribute to effective treatment are also discussed.     

Comparatives,logical structures,and encoding in a transitive inference task

Four- to five-year-old children were asked questions on length involving single or double comparatives in a transitive inference task. The number of comparatives varied within or across pairs. The pairs of sticks were colorcoded. Initial pair-wise discrimination training on four adjacent pairs from a five-stick array with only verbal feedback was followed by tests, without feedback, on all possible pairs. When both comparatives were used, Ss learned adjacent pairs faster and more often reached criterion than when only one comparative term was used in training. In testing, Ss were successful on transitive inference tests only when the double-comparative relation was used within pairs during training. Retraining with visual feedback increased the number of Ss solving the inference test only in this condition. The findings are discussed in terms of how children may use processes other than logical operations to make transitive inferences.