Simultaneously Testing Parenting and Social Cognitions in Children At-Risk for Aggressive Behavior Problems: Sex Differences and Ethnic Similarities

In this cross-sectional study we examined a model in which parenting, child social information processing and self-perception are simultaneously tested as risk factors associated with aggression. Sex and ethnicity were tested as moderators of associations. The sample consisted of 206 4th grade children in the Netherlands. Parents reported on parenting, parent–child relationship, and reactive and proactive aggression whereas children reported on self-perception and social information processing. Results give support for both child social cognitive functioning and parenting as risk factors associated with aggressive behavior: For all children, a positive parent–child relationship was associated with less aggression, negative parenting was related to less positive self-perception, and deficits in social-cognitive functioning were related to aggression. Multigroup analyses showed ethnic similarities and sex differences in patterns of associations, which might suggest personalized tailor-made interventions for aggressive behavior.     

Effects of parent and child characteristics on participation and outcome of an individualized booster parent intervention for children with externalizing behaviour

In this study, we examined whether a booster parent training, offered after a cognitive behavioural child intervention, is effective in reduction of aggressive behaviour and changes in parenting. A second aim was to identify parent and child characteristics that influence parental participation. Children (73% boys, 40% immigrants, mean age = 10.1 (.53)) were randomly assigned to the child (n = 97 children) or child and parent intervention (n = 94 children) condition. Results of both intention-to-treat and completers only analyses indicated no extra effects of the parent intervention for the total group. Parents who participated (47%) did not differ from non-participants in demographic characteristics. However, mother's perceived level of child's aggression at the end of the child intervention was of significant meaning for the decision to participate in the parent intervention. Participation seemed to interrupt the development of more aggressive behaviour and less appropriate parenting skills for those children in highest need and resulted in increased maternal involvement.     

Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group

Examined the hypothesis that distinct parenting practices may be associated with type and profile of a child's disruptive behavior problems (e.g., oppositional, aggressive, hyperactive). Parents of 631 behaviorally disruptive children described the extent to which they experienced warm and involved interactions with their children and the extent to which their discipline strategies were inconsistent and punitive and involved spanking and physical aggression. As expected from a developmental perspective, parenting practices that included punitive interactions were associated with elevated rates of all child disruptive behavior problems. Low levels of warm involvement were particularly characteristic of parents of children who showed elevated levels of oppositional behaviors. Physically aggressive parenting was linked more specifically with child aggression. In general, parenting practices contributed more to the prediction of oppositional and aggressive behavior problems than to hyperactive behavior problems, and parenting influences were fairly consistent across ethnic groups and sex.     

Bidirectional Relations between Parenting Practices and Child Externalizing Behavior: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis in the Context of a Psychosocial Treatment and 3-Year Follow-up

In the current study, we examined longitudinal changes in, and bidirectional effects between, parenting practices and child behavior problems in the context of a psychosocial treatment and 3-year follow-up period. The sample comprised 139 parent–child dyads (child ages 6–11) who participated in a modular treatment protocol for early-onset ODD or CD. Parenting practices and child behavior problems were assessed at six time-points using multiple measures and multiple reporters. The data were analyzed using cross-lagged panel analyses. Results indicated robust temporal stabilities of parenting practices and child behavior problems, in the context of treatment-related improvements, but bidirectional effects between parenting practices and child behavior were less frequently detected. Our findings suggest that bidirectional effects are relatively smaller than the temporal stability of each construct for school-age children with ODD/CD and their parents, following a multi-modal clinical intervention that is directed at both parents and children. Implications for treatment and intervention are discussed.     

Bidirectional Effects of Parenting Quality and Child Externalizing Behavior in Predominantly Single Parent, Under-Resourced African American Families

This study investigates the bidirectional perspective of parent–child effects by examining the extent to which parenting quality predicted child externalizing behavior and vice versa. Data was collected over four time points from primary caregivers and early school age children in low-income, primarily single parent homes (N = 249, mean age of children at Time 1 = 6.41 years). Parenting quality was operationalized as primary caregiver perceptions of positive parenting, effectiveness of parenting discipline, parenting efficacy and satisfaction. Child externalizing behavior data was captured via an assessment of the frequency of externalizing behavior as reported by caregivers. We hypothesized that parenting quality and child externalizing behavior would remain stable over time and that a bidirectional relationship would be present. Data was analyzed using structural equation modeling and results indicated that child externalizing behavior predicted subsequent parenting quality, and parenting quality predicted subsequent child externalizing. Specifically, our research team found that the influence of child externalizing behavior on parenting quality decreased with time, while the influence of parenting quality on child externalizing behavior increased with time. Overall results reveal the complex transactional influences of child externalizing behavior and parenting quality in our sample. Findings support the notion that parenting quality and child externalizing behavior are interactive processes which might best be handled by continual assessment and which may be potentially strong targets for interventions.     

Differential associations between maternal and paternal parenting and physical and relational aggression

A large number of studies have demonstrated that negative parenting is associated with greater levels of aggression (relational and physical) among school‐age children in Western cultures. However, the investigation of this association for children in non‐Western cultures is still in its infancy. The present study examines the associations between maternal and paternal parenting behaviours (conflict with the child, physical aggression toward the child and relational aggression toward the child) and forms of aggression, and explores gender differences in these associations among Japanese boys and girls. The participants were 130 fifth and sixth graders (age range: 10 to 12). Children reported maternal and paternal parenting behaviours, and classroom teachers assessed children's relational and physical aggression. Results show that boys and girls had more conflict, more relationally aggressive parenting experiences and more intimate relationships with their mothers than their fathers. Further, after controlling for grade and gender, greater maternal (but not paternal) relational aggression was associated with more peer‐oriented relational aggression for boys only and more peer‐oriented physical aggression for boys and girls. Greater paternal (but not maternal) conflict was predictive of more peer‐oriented physical aggression for boys and girls. The direction and strength of the associations between parenting behaviours and forms of aggression may be contingent upon the gender of the parent and the child. The findings are discussed from cultural, developmental and social perspectives, and implications for future research are discussed.     

Interactions Between Maternal Parenting and Children’s Early Disruptive Behavior: Bidirectional Associations across the Transition from Preschool to School Entry

This study was a prospective 2-year longitudinal investigation of associations between negative maternal parenting and disruptive child behavior across the preschool to school transition. Our main goals were to 1) determine the direction of association between early maternal negativity and child disruptive behaviors across this important developmental transition and 2) examine whether there would be different patterns of associations for boys and girls. Participants were 235 children (111 girls; T1; M = 37.7 months, T2; M = 63.4 months) and their mothers and teachers. Observational and multi-informant ratings of child disruptive behavior showed differential patterns of stability and associations with measures of parenting risk. Results indicated bidirectional and interactive contributions of externalizing behavior and negative parenting across time. Results also indicated that risk mechanisms operate similarly for both sexes. Findings support transactional models of disruptive child behavior that highlight the joint contributions of parents and children.     

Callous-unemotional features, behavioral inhibition, and parenting: independent predictors of aggression in a high-risk preschool sample

A behaviorally-uninhibited temperament, callous-unemotional (CU) features, and harsh parenting have been associated with specific patterns of aggressive behavior in older children and adolescents. We tested the additive and interactive effects of these factors in predicting different types of aggressive behavior in a high-risk preschool sample. Forty-nine preschoolers and their parents registering for Head Start programs were recruited for participation. Behavioral inhibition, CU features, and attitudes toward various types of parenting were assessed through parent rating scales completed at the time of registration. Behavioral inhibition, CU features, and aggression were assessed by teacher ratings approximately six months later. Analyses revealed that behavioral inhibition, CU features, and harsh parental attitudes all contributed independently to the prediction of aggressive behavior. These associations were strongest for proactive types of aggression. Our results suggest that a behaviorally uninhibited temperament, CU features, and attitudes favoring harsh parenting are all important for understanding the development of aggression in preschool children.     

Child Personality Moderates Associations Between Parenting and Relational and Physical Aggression

Although negative parenting strategies are a risk factor for relational and physical aggression, research has not previously investigated whether child personality traits moderate the association between negative parenting and relational and physical aggression. This was the aim of this study. Participants were mothers of 368 children (172 males, M_age = 11.61, SD = 0.82). Mothers reported on their parenting practices, child personality traits, and child aggression. Results indicated that 2 child personality traits (extraversion and openness) moderated the relationship between inconsistent discipline and relational aggression. Additionally, agreeableness moderated the relationship between poor monitoring and supervision and physical aggression. Specifically, children low on these personality traits showed the highest levels of aggression in the context of negative parenting. These results highlight the importance of examining child personality as a moderator of parental influences on psychopathology development, and emphasize important distinctions between parenting strategies and physical versus relational aggression outcomes.     

Bidirectional Spillover in the Family across the Transition to Parenthood

Although family systems theory posits reciprocal causality between subsystems of the family, such as intimate partner violence exacerbating harsh parenting and vice versa, longitudinal studies with cross‐lagged models have been used infrequently to test these principles. As guided by the spillover model, this study examined bidirectional associations between couple dysfunction, parent–child aggression risk, and child functioning across the transition to parenthood to determine whether and how disruptions in one subsystem relate to problems in other family subsystems. Participants were 201 first‐time mothers and 151 fathers from a diverse community sample, evaluated during pregnancy, and reassessed two more times through their child's first 18 months of life. Individual and dyadic path model results indicate bidirectional spillover effects between parent–child aggression risk and child functioning for both mothers and fathers, and spillover from parent–child aggression risk to couple dysfunction for mothers but not fathers. However, limited spillover effects were identified between couple functioning and child adjustment, in contrast to previous work. Findings suggest that spillover can happen reciprocally and early in the family, supporting transactional models of behavior and highlighting the need for early family level intervention.     

Teacher and Parent Perceptions of Relational and Physical Aggression During Early Childhood

Although links have been found between parents’ and teachers’ (caregivers’) attitudes about aggressive behavior, their responses to aggressive behaviour in children, and those children’s own use of aggressive behaviour, most research has focused on primary and secondary school contexts and has examined the influence of parents and teachers separately. The current study explored both parents’ and teachers’ beliefs and intervention strategies for relational and physical aggression in early childhood settings. Teachers (N?=?18; Mage?=?34.8 years) and parents (N?=?68; Mage?=?32.2 years) were presented with vignettes portraying relational and physical aggression. Following each vignette, their perceptions of the seriousness of the act, empathy for the victim, likelihood to intervene, and intervention strategies used to respond to each vignette were assessed. Teachers were also interviewed about examples of aggression that have been seen in preschool age children. Results indicated that caregivers viewed relational compared to physical aggression as more normative, and had less empathy for, and were less likely to intervene in instances of relationally aggressive behaviour. They also recommended more passive intervention strategies towards relationally aggressive children and more direct strategies towards physically aggressive children. Interview responses indicated that teachers perceived the primary cause of aggression to be related to developmental characteristics of the child. Implications for how these findings about adult–child interactions impact the development of relational and physical aggression are discussed.     

Autonomic functioning in reactive versus proactive aggression: The influential role of inconsistent parenting

Research has consistently supported autonomic nervous system (ANS) functioning as a predictor of aggressive behavior in youth. Several studies have further examined how the functioning of the sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) branches of the ANS interact with environmental factors to predict behavioral outcomes. One factor that has yet to be studied in this context however, is parenting practices. Given that many interventions for externalizing behavior target parenting practices, such as increasing consistent discipline, it may be particularly important to assess whether parenting practices interact with SNS and PNS functioning in the child to influence risk for aggressive behavior. Therefore, the current study addressed this question by examining inconsistent discipline as a moderator of the relationship between baseline SNS versus PNS activity and reactive versus proactive aggression. Data were collected from a sample of fourth graders identified as at‐risk for aggression (N = 188). Results indicated that baseline SNS activity was positively related to proactive aggression under high levels of inconsistent discipline, but negatively related to proactive aggression under very low levels of inconsistent discipline. Baseline PNS activity was negatively associated with reactive aggression under low levels of inconsistent discipline. No main effects were found for SNS or PNS functioning and either form of aggression, emphasizing the importance of taking a biosocial approach to examining the predictors of aggressive behavior in at‐risk youth. Results from this study help to better understand the circumstances under which children are most likely to exhibit reactive versus proactive aggression, better informing targeted prevention and treatment.

     

Cross-cultural effects of parent warmth and control on aggression and rule-breaking from ages 8 to 13

We investigated whether bidirectional associations between parental warmth and behavioral control and child aggression and rule-breaking behavior emerged in 12 cultural groups. Study participants included 1,298 children (M = 8.29 years, standard deviation [SD] = 0.66, 51% girls) from Shanghai, China (n = 121); Medellín, Colombia (n = 108); Naples (n = 100) and Rome (n = 103), Italy; Zarqa, Jordan (n = 114); Kisumu, Kenya (n = 100); Manila, Philippines (n = 120); Trollhättan/Vänersborg, Sweden (n = 101); Chiang Mai, Thailand (n = 120); and Durham, NC, United States (n = 111 White, n = 103 Black, n = 97 Latino) followed over 5 years (i.e., ages 8–13). Warmth and control were measured using the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire, child aggression and rule-breaking were measured using the Achenbach System of Empirically-Based Assessment. Multiple-group structural equation modeling was conducted. Associations between parent warmth and subsequent rule-breaking behavior were found to be more common across ontogeny and demonstrate greater variability across different cultures than associations between warmth and subsequent aggressive behavior. In contrast, the evocative effects of child aggressive behavior on subsequent parent warmth and behavioral control were more common, especially before age 10, than those of rule-breaking behavior. Considering the type of externalizing behavior, developmental time point, and cultural context is essential to understanding how parenting and child behavior reciprocally affect one another.     

Partner aggression in high-risk families from birth to age 3 years: associations with harsh parenting and child maladjustment

Aggression between partners represents a potential guiding force in family dynamics. However, research examining the influence of partner aggression (physically and psychologically aggressive acts by both partners) on harsh parenting and young child adjustment has been limited by a frequent focus on low-risk samples and by the examination of partner aggression at a single time point. Especially in the context of multiple risk factors and around transitions such as childbirth, partner aggression might be better understood as a dynamic process. In the present study, longitudinal trajectories of partner aggression from birth to age 3 years in a large, high-risk, and ethnically diverse sample (N = 461) were examined. Specific risk factors were tested as predictors of aggression over time, and the longitudinal effects of partner aggression on maternal harsh parenting and child maladjustment were examined. Partner aggression decreased over time, with higher maternal depression and lower maternal age predicting greater decreases in partner aggression. While taking into account contextual and psychosocial risk factors, higher partner aggression measured at birth and a smaller decrease over time independently predicted higher levels of maternal harsh parenting at age 3 years. Initial level of partner aggression and change over time predicted child maladjustment indirectly (via maternal harsh parenting). The implications of understanding change in partner aggression over time as a path to harsh parenting and young children's maladjustment in the context of multiple risk factors are discussed.     

Entwicklungspsychologische Aspekte von Delinquenz

Children and adolescents are more likely to present aggressive behavior than adults. According to official criminal statistics in Germany approximately one quarter of all delinquents are younger than 25 years. Nevertheless, delinquency is a transient phenomenon in adolescence and the prevalence of delinquency in young adults decreases significantly. Most children show no problems with aggressive behavior or delinquency and only persistent problems with aggressive behavior, violence and conduct problems indicate the necessity for child and adolescent psychiatric diagnostics. The type of aggression (proactive versus reactive) a child presents seems to be predictive for the later outcome and children with proactive aggression are at higher risk for later delinquency and social problems. Lack of empathy and psychopathic traits are further aspects which are of interest in research on etiology of aggressive behavior in children. Both seem to be relevant as predictors of the course of aggressive behavior. Furthermore, attachment problems in infancy, parenting style and ecological factors, such as socioeconomic status and peers have an influence both on the origin and on the course of aggressive behavior in children.     

Reciprocal Relations between the Trajectories of Mothers’ Harsh Discipline,Responsiveness and Aggression in Early Childhood

Theoretical advances in the study of the development of aggressive behaviors indicate that parenting behaviors and child aggression mutually influence one another. This study contributes to the body of empirical research in this area by examining the development of child aggression, maternal responsiveness, and maternal harsh discipline, using 5-year longitudinal data from a nationally representative sample of Turkish children (n = 1009; 469 girls and 582 boys). Results indicated that: (i) maternal responsiveness and harsh discipline at age 3 were associated with the subsequent linear trajectory of aggression; (ii) reciprocally, aggressive behaviors at age 3 were associated with the subsequent linear trajectories of these two types of parenting behaviors; (iii) deviations from the linear trajectories of the child and mother behaviors tended to be short lived; and, (iv) the deviations of child behaviors from the linear trajectories were associated with the subsequent changes in mother behaviors after age 5. These findings are discussed in the cultural context of this study.     

Child sex moderates the association between negative parenting and childhood conduct problems

Although multiple dimensions of negative parenting behavior are associated with childhood conduct problems (CP), there is relatively little research on whether the association is equally robust in boys and girls. To improve the specificity of current models of negative parenting and offspring CP, we explored the potential moderating role of child sex in a sample of 179 5- to 10-year-old ethnically diverse boys and girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were assessed using multiple methods (i.e., rating scales, semistructured interviews) and informants (i.e., parents, teachers). Controlling for children's age, race-ethnicity, and ADHD diagnostic status (i.e., ADHD vs. non-ADHD), inconsistent discipline was positively associated with offspring aggression and rule-breaking behavior, whereas harsh punishment was positively associated with aggression, rule-breaking behavior, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Furthermore, child sex significantly moderated the association of inconsistent discipline and aggression and rule-breaking behavior, such that inconsistent discipline was positively associated with CP for boys, but not for girls. Given the centrality of negative parenting to theories of and efficacious interventions for aggression and CP, we discuss these findings within a developmental psychopathology framework and consider their implications for intervention.     

Associations between parental control and children's overt and relational aggression

The present study examined specialized associations between parental control and child aggression in a sample of 600 8‐ to 10‐years old children. Parental control dimensions and aggression subtypes were assessed using multiple informants (i.e. children, mothers, fathers, peers, and teachers). In line with expectations, parental physical punishment was positively associated with overt aggression, whereas parental psychological control was positively associated with relational aggression in both girls and boys. In addition, this study demonstrated that if both parents employed similar parenting strategies, it appeared to have a cumulative effect on child aggressive behaviour. Associations involving overt aggression were more pronounced for boys than girls, whereas associations involving relational aggression were not moderated by gender. Overall, the present study contributes to an emerging research field by supporting the hypothesis of specialized associations between parental control and child aggression.     

Staff Intervention and Youth Behaviors in a Child Welfare Residence

The aim of this study was to explore the bidirectional relationship between youth behaviours, more specifically opposition and aggression, and the types of interventions used by staff within a child welfare residential setting. Intervention forms were completed by staff after their interventions with youth. A total of 278 micro-interactions between staff and youth were coded from 84 forms. Generalised estimating equations were conducted controlling for past aggression during the intervention. Reminding youth of rules and using constraining methods were the interventions used with greater frequency when youth were oppositional or aggressive. These two interventions were also found to increase the odds of opposition and aggression among youth.