Face recognition: Effects of study to test maintenance and change of photographic mode and pose

Facial recognition performance was examined as a function of changes in the target between initial exposure (study) and a subsequent recognition test. Photographic mode (colour vs. black and white) was changed in Experiments 1 and 2 and pose (front vs. profile) was changed in Experiment 2. The predictions of three information quantity models and of encoding specificity were contrasted. The information hypotheses predict that colour photographs will be better recognized when presented in colour than in black and white; the more specific predictions differ depending on the modes at study and test. Encoding specificity predicts recognition performance will be better when study and test modes are the same. The results of Experiment 1 showed that performance was highest when pictures remained in the same mode from study to test, and decreased when the mode was changed. Change of mode was particularly detrimental when the faces were studied in black and white and tested in colour. Experiment 2 showed a pattern of results also in accord with encoding specificity. The photographic mode and pose effects did not interact. Change of pose had a greater effect than change of photographic mode. Experiment 2 did not replicate the transformation asymmetry found in Experiment 1. The results indicate that for facial recognition memory, change lowers recognition, but the magnitude of the effect depends on the kind of change.     

Multisensory integration, perception and ecological validity

Studies of multimodal integration have relied to a large extent on conflict situations, in which two sensory modalities receive incongruent data concerning one aspect of the source. Exposure to such situations produces immediate crossmodal biases as well as longer lasting aftereffects, revealing recalibrations of data-to-percept matches. In the natural environment, such phenomena might be adaptive, by reducing the perturbing effects of factors like noise or growth-induced changes in receptor organs, and by enriching the percept. However, experimental results generalize to real life only when they reflect automatic perceptual processes, and not response strategies adopted to satisfy the particular demands of laboratory tasks. Here, we focus on this issue and review ways of addressing it that have been developed recently.     

FMRI of two measures of phonological processing in visual word recognition: ecological validity matters

Previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have investigated the role of phonological processing by utilizing nonword rhyming decision tasks (e.g., Pugh et al., 1996). Although such tasks clearly engage phonological components of visual word recognition, it is clear that decision tasks are more cognitively involved than the simple overt naming tasks, which more closely map onto normal reading behavior. Our research aim for this study was to examine the advantages of overt naming tasks for fMRI studies of word recognition processes. Process models are presented to highlight the similarities and differences between two cognitive tasks that are used in the word recognition literature, pseudohomophone naming (e.g., pronounce BRANE) and rhyming decision (e.g., do LEAT and JEAT rhyme?). An fMRI study identified several differences in cortical activation associated with the differences observed in the process models. Specifically, the results show that the overt naming task involved the insular cortex and inferior frontal gyrus, whereas the rhyming decision task engaged the temporal-parietal regions. It is argued that future fMRI research examining the neuroanatomical components of basic visual word recognition utilize overt naming tasks.     

Face recognition by hand

We investigated participants' ability to identify and represent faces by hand. In Experiment 1, participants proved surprisingly capable of identifying unfamiliar live human faces using only their sense of touch. To evaluate the contribution of geometric and material information more directly, we biased participants toward encoding faces more in terms of geometric than material properties, by varying the exploration condition. When participants explored the faces both visually and tactually, identification accuracy did not improve relative to touch alone. When participants explored masks of the faces, thereby eliminating material cues, matching accuracy declined substantially relative to tactual identification of live faces. In Experiment 2, we explored intersensory transfer of face information between vision and touch. The findings are discussed in terms of their relevance to haptic object processing and to the face-processing literature in general.     

Face recognition by hand

We investigated participants’ ability to identify and represent faces by hand. In Experiment 1, participants proved surprisingly capable of identifying unfamiliar live human faces using only their sense of touch. To evaluate the contribution of geometric and material information more directly, we biased participants toward encoding faces more in terms of geometric than material properties, by varying the exploration condition. When participants explored the faces both visually and tactually, identification accuracy did not improve relative to touch alone. When participants explored masks of the faces, thereby eliminating material cues, matching accuracy declined substantially relative to tactual identification of live faces. In Experiment 2, we explored intersensory transfer of face information between vision and touch. The findings are discussed in terms of their relevance to haptic object processing and to the faceprocessing literature in general.     

Educational software evaluation research: Balancing internal,external, and ecological validity

The difficulties inherent in the evaluation of educational software are described in terms of the tradeoffs between internal, external, and ecological validity. Larger issues in evaluation research design and computer-based instruction are highlighted by primary and metaanalytic studies designed to reveal the effects of computer simulations in psychology classrooms and laboratories. The effectiveness of classroom and laboratory computer activities depends on how the inclusion of software, as well as the evaluation process itself, changes the entire instructional process.     

Computer methods and ecological validity in reading research

Computer-based procedures for obtaining word-by-word reading times are evaluated in terms of criteria for basic research and for ecologically valid research. Ecological validity can sometimes compromise experimental designs that should control extraneous variables or separate confounded factors. Two reading paradigms that were developed for basic research on linguistic coding mechanisms are also shown to meet many of the criteria for ecological validity.     

Intuitive prediction: ecological validity versus representativeness

Insufficiently regressive intuitive predictions have been attributed to mistaken reliance on the representativeness heuristic. In contrast, we suggest that intuitive predictions stem from a conceptualization of ‘goodness of prediction’ that differs from the accepted statistical definition in terms of error minimization, namely, ecological validity—that is, representation of the substantive characteristics of the predicted variable Y and its distribution as well as of the relationship between Y and the predictor X—rather than minimization of prediction errors. Simultaneous satisfaction of the above representation requirements is achieved by multivalued prediction: The prediction of different Y′ values for the same X value, resulting in conditional distributions Y′|X for at least some X values. Empirical results supporting this hypothesis are presented and discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A two-fold transformation model for human action recognition using decisive pose

Human action recognition in videos is a tough task due to the complex background, geometrical transformation and an enormous volume of data. Hence, to address these issues, an effective algorithm is developed, which can identify human action in videos using a single decisive pose. To achieve the task, a decisive pose is extracted using optical flow, and further, feature extraction is done via a two-fold transformation of wavelet. The two-fold transformation is done via Gabor Wavelet Transform (GWT) and Ridgelet Transform (RT). The GWT produces a feature vector by calculating first-order statistics values of different scale and orientations of an input pose, which have robustness against translation, scaling and rotation. The orientation-dependent shape characteristics of human action are computed using RT. The fusion of these features gives a robust unified algorithm. The effectiveness of the algorithm is measured on four publicly datasets i.e. KTH, Weizmann, Ballet Movement, and UT Interaction and accuracy reported on these datasets are 96.66%, 96%, 92.75% and 100%, respectively. The comparison of accuracies with similar state-of-the-arts shows superior performance.     

Face validity of test and acceptance of generalized personality interpretations.

After students in different groups took one of four "personality tests" that varied in face validity, they received a generalized personality interpretation. Even though the test lowest in face validity merely required the subject to circle digits, judged accuracy of the interpretation (a) was high for all tests (76-87% of the ratings in the various test groups were good or excellent) and (b) was independent of type of test upon which the interpretation was purportedly derived. From 46-60% of the subjects in the various groups "definitely liked" or "liked" the interpretation; likability was independent of face validity of the test. Judged accuracy and likability of the interpretation correlated positively and significantly. The willingness of individuals to accept generalized statements about themselves is a researchable problem area suggested by the present research.     

The role of ecological validity in hazard perception assessment

Hazard perception is one of the few quantifiable components of driving competency that can explain the high crash risk of novice drivers (see Horswill & McKenna, 2004). Some studies focused on investigating the stimulus part of hazard perception items by comparing several design features of the displayed traffic scenarios (e.g. Malone et al., 2012; Scialfa et al., 2013). Other empirical studies have been conducted to address the reaction part of hazard perception items (e.g. Vlakveld, 2014). Among others, existing hazard perception tests differ with respect to the ecological validity – the similarity to real-world demands – of the task that has to be completed by the participants (simple reaction, hazard localization, simulated driving, etc.). Based on the findings of general expertise research (see Glaser & Chi, 1988), the hypothesis of the present experiment was that an increased ecological validity of a hazard perception task has a positive effect on the magnitude of performance differences between more and less experienced drivers. 104 learner drivers and 51 experienced drivers were randomly assigned either to a less ecological valid version (multiple choice task) or a higher ecological valid version (reaction task) of a hazard perception test. In both conditions, the same 20 animated hazardous or non-hazardous traffic scenarios were presented. Overall, the experienced drivers outperformed the learner drivers. Principally, both of the applied versions of the test provided a criterion valid measure of driving expertise. However, increasing the ecological validity of the test by using a reaction task was especially beneficial for certain types of scenarios, leading to higher expertise-related differences. In addition, the reaction task provides response time measure as a further valid performance indicator. This allows the identification of those participants who are indeed able to detect a hazard in a certain scenario, but still have deficits in response time, compared to more experienced drivers. According to the present study, it is recommended to choose the reaction task over the multiple choice task to test hazard perception. Whether a further increase in ecological validity of the task would be useful, should be tested empirically in future research.     

Neuroticism, negative affect, and negative affect instability: Establishing convergent and discriminant validity using ecological momentary assessment

Few investigations have examined the role of affective instability within a broad model of general personality functioning. The present study employed self-report and ecological momentary assessments (EMA) to examine the relations between self-reported Five-Factor Model Neuroticism, EMA average negative affect, and EMA negative affect instability. Results suggest that Neuroticism and negative affect instability are related yet distinct constructs, and that Neuroticism better represents average negative affect across time. Results also suggest that negative affect instability is related to low Agreeableness and specific externalizing facets of Neuroticism, such as Angry Hostility and Impulsiveness. The implications of these findings and potential areas for future research are discussed.     

Neuroticism,negative affect,and negative affect instability: Establishing convergent and discriminant validity using ecological momentary assessment

Few investigations have examined the role of affective instability within a broad model of general personality functioning. The present study employed self-report and ecological momentary assessments (EMA) to examine the relations between self-reported Five-Factor Model Neuroticism, EMA average negative affect, and EMA negative affect instability. Results suggest that Neuroticism and negative affect instability are related yet distinct constructs, and that Neuroticism better represents average negative affect across time. Results also suggest that negative affect instability is related to low Agreeableness and specific externalizing facets of Neuroticism, such as Angry Hostility and Impulsiveness. The implications of these findings and potential areas for future research are discussed.     

The ecological validity of laboratory and analogue assessment methods of ADHD symptoms

An important question in the attempt to generalize laboratory findings on attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) children to clinical issues concerning their assessment, diagnosis, outcome, and treatment response is the ecological validity of the commonly used tasks and analogue behavioral observation procedures. This paper examines the concept of ecological validity and issues inherent in its evaluation. The evidence from a variety of sources is then reviewed on the relationship between laboratory methods of assessing inattention, impulsivity, and overactivity and measures of these same constructs in natural settings. Additional findings pertaining to this issue from a recent study of 140 ADHD and normal children and 159 ADHD and normal adolescents using a multimethod battery of tests are also reported. In general, the ecological validity of most methods is of a low to moderate degree, with some traditional laboratory tasks proving unsatisfactory. A few tasks demonstrated acceptable degrees of ecological validity but even these require improvement. It is concluded that future advances in ecological validity are likely to come from: (a) a greater reliance on assessments of the target behaviors in natural settings and (b) combining several of the more promising tasks and analogue methods into a battery that is taken over longer time intervals than has been customary and averaged across repeated administrations.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the International Symposium on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, April 6 and 7, 1989. The author wishes to thank Charles E. Cunningham, Ph.D., Susan Campbell, Ph.D., Mark Rapport, Ph.D., Eric Mash, Ph.D., and Herbert Quay, Ph.D., for their comments on an earlier version of this paper, and to Marcel Kinsbourne, M.D., for his comments on the presentation itself. The author was supported by funds from NIMH grants 41464, 41583, and 42181 during the preparation of this review.     

Models of ecological rationality: the recognition heuristic

One view of heuristics is that they are imperfect versions of optimal statistical procedures considered too complicated for ordinary minds to carry out. In contrast, the authors consider heuristics to be adaptive strategies that evolved in tandem with fundamental psychological mechanisms. The recognition heuristic, arguably the most frugal of all heuristics, makes inferences from patterns of missing knowledge. This heuristic exploits a fundamental adaptation of many organisms: the vast, sensitive, and reliable capacity for recognition. The authors specify the conditions under which the recognition heuristic is successful and when it leads to the counterintuitive less-is-more effect in which less knowledge is better than more for making accurate inferences.     

Super-recognisers: Face recognition performance after variable delay intervals

Outstanding long-term face recognition of suspects is a hallmark of the exceptionally skilled police ‘super-recognisers’ (SRs). Yet, research investigating SR's memory for faces mainly employed brief retention intervals. Therefore, in Experiment 1, 597 participants (121 SRs) viewed 10 target videos and attempted identification of targets from 10 target-present line-ups after 1–56 days. In Experiment 2, 1,421 participants (301 SRs) viewed 20 target videos, and after a baseline of no delay to 28 days,—10 target-present and 10 target-absent line-ups, to assess correct line-up rejections. Overall, delay positively correlated with hits but not with correct rejections. Most, but not all SRs, made more correct identifications and correct rejections than controls at all retention intervals, demonstrating that many SRs possess enhanced long-term face memory. This research adds to the knowledge of SR's skillsets, and enhances the case for the selection of SRs to identity critical roles—particularly policing.     

Face age and sex modulate the other-race effect in face recognition

Faces convey a variety of socially relevant cues that have been shown to affect recognition, such as age, sex, and race, but few studies have examined the interactive effect of these cues. White participants of two distinct age groups were presented with faces that differed in race, age, and sex in a face recognition paradigm. Replicating the other-race effect, young participants recognized young own-race faces better than young other-race faces. However, recognition performance did not differ across old faces of different races (Experiments 1, 2A). In addition, participants showed an other-age effect, recognizing White young faces better than White old faces. Sex affected recognition performance only when age was not varied (Experiment 2B). Overall, older participants showed a similar recognition pattern (Experiment 3) as young participants, displaying an other-race effect for young, but not old, faces. However, they recognized young and old White faces on a similar level. These findings indicate that face cues interact to affect recognition performance such that age and sex information reliably modulate the effect of race cues. These results extend accounts of face recognition that explain recognition biases (such as the other-race effect) as a function of dichotomous ingroup/outgroup categorization, in that outgroup characteristics are not simply additive but interactively determine recognition performance.     

Face recognition and aging: Effects of target age and memory load

In the present study, we investigated age-related decline in face recognition memory and whether this decline is moderated by the age of the target faces and by the number of faces that the participant must learn (memory load). Thirty-two participants in each of three age groups (18-39 years, 60-75 years, and 76-96 years) completed a face recognition task. Signal detection analyses confirmed that face recognition accuracy declined with age. However, this finding was qualified by an interaction between participant age and target age, which revealed that the age-related decline in face recognition accuracy occurred only for young target faces. Increased memory load was associated with comparable performance decrements across all age groups. However, memory load appears not to be the cause of these decrements. Instead, they appear to be a product of recognition load (the number of stimuli presented in the recognition phase).     

The ecological validity of the autonomic-subjective response dissociation in repressive coping

Background and Objectives: Repressive coping has been associated with elevated cardiovascular reactivity and diminished self-reported negative affect (so-called autonomic-subjective response dissociation, ASRD) in response to laboratory stressors. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the ecological validity of this response pattern. Design: An ambulatory assessment strategy was applied in order to analyze associations between ASRD and repressive coping throughout a day. Methods: A sample of 114 individuals was recruited. Heart rate was recorded via ECG and subjective reports of negative affect as well as the experience of demand and control (as indicators of stress) and situational characteristics were assessed several times a day via mobile electronic devices. Results: Repressive coping relative to other coping dispositions was accompanied by elevated ASRD during stressful episodes in daily life, thus supporting previous laboratory research. Conclusions: The findings suggest that repressive coping is associated with a discrepancy between subjective reports of negative affect and autonomic responding to stressful encounters in everyday life, which might impact health.