The effects of trait label and order of presentation on observers' ratings of performance anxiety

In two experiments, the effects of different stimulus presentation orders and trait labels on observers' ratings of performance anxiety were examined. In Experiment 1, 60 college students viewed, in one session, ten 3-min videotapes of a man speaking while displaying a variety of the behavioral manifestations of anxiety. The tapes varied linearly in the percentage of time during which anxious behaviors were emitted. Anxiety ratings were made along either a “calm” or an “anxious” dimension. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three orders of presentation conditions (with the frequencies of anxious behaviors ascending, descending, or randomized across tapes) and one of two trait-label conditions, calm or anxious. In Experiment 2, 60 additional subjects viewed these same tapes and a contrasting series designed to display a consistent rate of anxiety behaviors. These tapes were viewed in 10 sessions over a 2- to 5-week period. Results replicated prior studies showing that the order of presentation can significantly affect observers' ratings. Additionally, the results suggested that, under certain conditions, subjects may not perceive a conceptually dichotomous variable (e.g., calm vs. anxious) in the same way. These results are discussed in terms of the complexity of observer behavior and potential problems in comparing outcome studies that use dichotomous traits.     

Brief Counseling With Hispanic American College Students

Sixteen Hispanic American college students met with a Puerto Rican counselor for 2 brief counseling sessions. Brief counseling was a viable and effective approach in helping the students reach their goals. Types of student concerns about and student perceptions of brief counseling were also examined.     

TRAINING PEERS TO TUTOR: EVALUATION OF A TUTOR TRAINING PACKAGE FOR PRIMARY LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS

Peer tutoring—academic instruction given by a student to a same-aged classmate—can be a cost-effective way of providing needed instruction in the typical classroom where one teacher must deal with many students of varying ability levels. This study evaluated an instructional package as a training method for increasing the use of selected tutoring behaviors by peer tutors. Nine male students, aged 7 to 9 years, from a learning disabilities resource room served as subjects; four subjects served as tutors, four as students, and one as a generalization student who was assigned to all tutors during generalization testing. Subjects were assigned to tutor-student pairs based on their performances on a pretest of the 220 Dolch Basic Sight Words, with the subjects scoring highest on the pretest serving as tutors. Each tutor worked with his assigned student throughout the study, except for pre- and posttest sessions with the generalization student. During daily sessions, tutors trained their students to recognize sight words using 10 flash cards, each with 1 of the Dolch words printed on it. Training was conducted with all four tutors in a group and was evaluated using a multiple baseline design across three classes of tutoring behaviors: Preparation Behaviors, Prompting Behaviors, and Praising Behaviors. Training consisted of: (a) verbal instructions on how to perform the tutoring behaviors; (b) charts illustrating the appropriate tutoring behaviors with stick figures; (c) role playing with each tutor with the experimenter playing the part of the student and giving feedback and verbal reinforcement to the tutor for performance of the appropriate tutoring behaviors; and (d) verbal testing of each tutor by asking him to state orally the behaviors he was to perform. Training sessions took approximately 30 minutes for each of the 3 classes of tutoring behaviors. Results showed an increased use of tutoring behaviors by tutors as a function of the instructional package. Increases in tutoring behaviors were also observed during postintervention generalization testing of tutors instructing their regular student in new subject matter (math). Data taken from pre-, mid-, and postintervention testing of the 220 Dolch Words showed an increase of identifiable sight words by both students and tutors after completing the peer tutoring program. This study demonstrates that a simple tutor training package can be employed to teach young, special education students to serve as effective tutors for their peers. In addition, the academic gains evidenced by the subjects lend positive support to the effectiveness of peer tutoring programs and specifically to the research of Dineen, Clark, and Risley (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10 , 231–238) which demonstrated the educational benefits of tutoring incurred by the tutor as well as by the student.     

Mindfulness Training and Classroom Behavior Among Lower-Income and Ethnic Minority Elementary School Children

This field intervention trial evaluated the effect of a 5-week mindfulness-based curriculum on teacher-ratings of student classroom behavior at a Richmond, CA public elementary school, and examined if the addition of more sessions provided added benefit to student outcomes. Seventeen teachers reported on the classroom behaviors of 409 children (83 % enrolled in a California free lunch program and 95.7 % ethnic minority) in kindergarten through sixth grade at pre-intervention, immediate post-intervention, and 7 weeks post-intervention. Results showed that teachers reported improved classroom behavior of their students (i.e., paying attention, self-control, participation in activities, and caring/respect for others) that lasted up to 7 weeks post-intervention. Overall, improvements were not bolstered by the addition of extra sessions, with the exception of paying attention. The implications of this study are limited due to the lack of a mindfulness program-naïve control group, yet findings suggest that mindfulness training might benefit teacher-based perceptions of improved classroom behavior in a public elementary school, which has practice implications for improving the classroom learning environment for lower-income and ethnically-diverse children.     

Reducing disruptive behavior through consultation

A university laboratory school counselor was consulted by a fourth grade teacher in order to resolve disruptive classroom behaviors of one student who did not stay seated and frequently spoke without permission. A behavioral approach in the classroom enabled the counselor to help. The teacher was instructed to pay attention to the child only when he remained seated or raised his hand for recognition. The student's behavior improved substantially. This study illustrates how the counselor can be effective as a consultant.     

Counseling in context

In these tense times of campus turmoil the expertise of the counselor is more needed than ever, but as an agent of change he should emerge from the closet of his office and be involved in group counseling in contexts where student and faculty feelings are starting to ferment. This would require expanding his role to include collaborating with teachers to improve the psychological settings in their classrooms, conducting informal “rap sessions” with both faculty or students, and setting up opportunities for group guidance activities both in and out of the classroom.     

The Effect of Previous Experience on Preference of Approach for Effective Counseling

Students in a general psychology class viewed four videotapes of initial vocational-educational and initial personal concern counseling sessions. The sessions were presented from a client-centered approach and from a behavioral approach, and employed the same client and counselor. After viewing the tapes, the students were asked to indicate which approach they thought would be more effective in helping a client. Results showed that students who had previously experienced counseling preferred a behavioral approach for both the vocational-educational concern and the personal concern. Students with no experience of counseling did not exhibit a preference.     

The effect of previous experience on preference of approach for effective counseling

Students in a general psychology class viewed four videotapes of initial vocational-educational and initial personal concern counseling sessions. The sessions were presented from a client-centered approach and from a behavioral approach, and employed the same client and counselor. After viewing the tapes, the students were asked to indicate which approach they thought would be more effective in helping a client. Results showed that students who had previously experienced counseling preferred a behavioral approach for both the vocational-educational concern and the personal concern. Students with no experience of counseling did not exhibit a preference.     

Student learning as the basis for reinforcement to the instructor

The present study reinforced the two instructors of two students with profound mental retardation first for the instructors' training behaviors, then for improved student learning in a multiple baseline across responses design. Reinforcement of the instructors' training behaviors increased their training behaviors, replicating the findings of previous studies, but had no effect on student learning. When the reinforcement for the instructors was instead made contingent upon student learning, the student learning improved and the instructors' high level of training behaviors was maintained. In addition, the instructors began to request training for themselves. These findings suggest that staff motivation programs for instructors might usefully base the reinforcers not only on the instructor's performance, but on the progress of their students.     

School Counselor Inclusion: A Collaborative Model to Provide Academic and Social‐Emotional Support in the Classroom Setting

The increasingly diverse student demographics reflect a myriad of needs in the interrelated arenas of educational achievement, social‐behavioral adjustment, and career development, while federal legislation, the ethical standards of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA; 2004a), and the ASCA (2005a) National Model have emphasized academic achievement and success for all students. This article describes a new model of school counselor “inclusion” that involves collaboration with classroom teachers and changes the setting of school counselor interventions to the classroom for small‐group and individual work.     

Using electronic discussion boards to teach responsible conduct of research

This study presents the results of a survey of student satisfaction with electronic discussion boards in a course on the responsible conduct of research (RCR). On a 1–5 scale, the respondents stated that the use of the electronic discussion board was an effective teaching tool (4.71), that it enabled them to get feedback from their peers (4.43), that it helped promote discussion and debate (4.36), that it helped them learn how to analyze ethical dilemmas in research (4.36), and that they would consider using an electronic discussion board, if they ever taught a course themselves (4.76). In their written comments, the respondents indicated that electronic discussion boards are a convenient way of promoting debate and in-depth discussion. These results suggest, but do not prove, that discussion boards can promote debate and discussion in courses on research ethics. Instructors who teach RCR should consider using electronic discussion boards in regular or online courses, and they should consider studying the effectiveness of electronic discussion boards in research ethics education. Although electronic discussion boards cannot replace the face-to-face interaction that occurs in a classroom setting, they may provide a useful medium for the exchange of ideas and opinions online.     

Instructor touch enhanced college students’ evaluations

Touch between people is associated with several outcomes, including reduced stress, more positive mood, enhanced feelings of closeness, and positive behavioral change. However, the potential utility of touch rarely has been examined in a college sample, with teachers touching their students. In the present study, we used instrumental touch operationalized as teaching students to take their pulse on the wrist; a control group was not touched. We assessed motivation, attitudes toward the instructor and the lecture, and quiz grades based on the lecture. Results indicated that touch increased motivation and attitudes toward the teacher and lecture. We suggest that instructors can use touch as a way to develop rapport, increase student motivation, and improve attitudes toward the instructor and course. Future research should evaluate appropriate forms of touch, possible moderation by student or instructor gender, and potential long-term benefits of using touch in the classroom.     

Gender in the college classroom: An assessment of the “chilly climate” for women

Previous research suggests that female students participate less often and less assertively than male students in college classrooms, and that teachers' discriminatory behaviors are partly responsible. Two in-class surveys of college students (N = 1375)—one at a university and one at a small college—assessed perceptions of student-teacher interaction. Factor analysis revealed a number of analytically distinct dimensions of classroom climate: what the class is like in general, what the class is like for the individual student, and what specific positive and negative teacher behaviors affect interaction. Class size affected each of these dimensions. Gender of student was significant only in the college survey, with males participating more, but this gender difference was not due to teachers' discrimination. Female teachers were more likely to create a participatory climate for all students. Creating a better classroom climate for female students creates a better learning environment for all students.We wish to thank Lawrence G. Rosenberg, Jean Dowdall, and Penelope J. Davis for their help and support during this research project. Mary Crawford was responsible for designing and carrying out the university survey, and Margo MacLeod for designing and carrying out the college survey.     

The Effect of Instructor Gender and Race/Ethnicity on Gaining Compliance in the Classroom1

How instructors' gender and race impacts their ability to gain compliance in the classroom when utilizing various bases of social power was investigated using a 2 × 2 × 3 between‐subjects design. Male and female participants (n = 297) completed the Interpersonal Power Inventory while viewing a photo depicting an instructor. The instructors depicted were male or female of varying ethnicities (Caucasian, African American, and Latino). Results indicated that instructor gender and race influenced student compliance rates when soft (subtle and noncoercive) bases of power were utilized. With regard to individual power bases, student gender, instructor gender, instructor race, and the Instructor Gender × Instructor Race interaction were found to impact compliance rates. Implications for classroom instructors, as well as other powerholders, are discussed.     

Educational technologies and the teaching of ethics in science and engineering

To support the teaching of ethics in science and engineering, educational technologies offer a variety of functions: communication between students and instructors, production of documents, distribution of documents, archiving of class sessions, and access to remote resources. Instructors may choose to use these functions of the technologies at different levels of intensity, to support a variety of pedagogies, consistent with accepted good practices. Good pedagogical practices are illustrated in this paper with four examples of uses of educational technologies in the teaching of ethics in science and engineering. Educational technologies impose costs for the purchase of hardware, licensing of software, hiring of support personnel, and training of instructors. Whether the benefits justify these costs is an unsettled question. While many researchers are studying the possible benefits of educational technologies, all instructors should assess the effectiveness of their practices.     

A study of engagement and premature termination in a university counseling center

Differences between engaged (clients seen for at least two counseling sessions) and nonengaged clients, and between post-engaged premature terminators and clients who terminated with counselor knowledge at a university counseling center were investigated. Five practicum trainees, four professional counselors, and 308 college student clients participated. Professionals had higher rates of engagement and lower rates of premature termination than trainees. Engagement was positively associated with understanding and teaching the client and with longer intake interviews. Premature termination was associated with counselor attractiveness, expertness, and trustworthiness. These characteristics related to premature termination in opposite directions for professional and practicum counselors. Results are discussed in terms of possible different mechanisms operating at the beginning and end of counseling.     

Parental representations and attachment style as predictors of support‐seeking behaviors and perceptions of support in an academic counseling relationship

The role of parental representations and attachment style as predictors of support‐seeking behaviors and perceptions of support in the context of an academic counseling relationship was investigated. Prior to participation in a 10‐hour academic counseling program in college, 91 students completed scales assessing perceptions of their current relationship with their parents and their attachment style. Students' support‐seeking behaviors and counselors' sensitivity, as reported by both participants (students and counselors), were evaluated twice during the counseling process, and general feelings of support were evaluated at the end of the program. Parental representations and attachment style both predicted students' support‐seeking behaviors and perceptions of support in counseling. The strength of the prediction differed as a function of time of measurement and source of evaluation. In addition, student‐perceived counselor sensitivity was found to mediate the relation between parental representations and support‐seeking behaviors in counseling     

Inclusion of Religious Behaviors and Attitudes in Counseling: Expectations of Conservative Christians

In this study of 118 religiously conservative Christians' expectations of counseling, participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment conditions: a Christian counselor or a counselor whose religious beliefs were unknown. Participants rated their expectations for the counselor's attitude toward their religious beliefs and use of religious behaviors in counseling using the Behavior and Attitude Expectancies scale (C. Belaire & J. S. Young, 2002). Participants also rated their general expectations for counseling using the Expectations About Counseling: Brief Form (H. E. A. Tinsley, 1985). Results showed that participants expected both a Christian counselor and a counselor whose religious beliefs were unknown to be respectful and accepting of conservative Christian religious beliefs and values and to include multiple religious behaviors in counseling sessions. Participants had overall positive expectations of the counseling process.     

Psychological Openness and Counselor Effectiveness: A Further Investigation

The purpose of this study was to crossvalidate previous findings which lend credence to the widely hypothesized positive relationship between a student's psychological openness and his effectiveness as a counselor. Rorschach indicators of psychological openness were compared with supervisor ratings of competence and scores obtained from the application of the Truax Scales of accurate empathy, genuineness, and nonpossessive warmth to tapes of actual counseling sessions. The data offer further support for the hypothesis that psychological openness is an important predictor of success in counselor training.     

Reducing Counselor Anxiety by Using Modeling Strategies

We hypothesized that beginning counselors experience interview-related anxiety that affects counselor performance. Two kinds of videotaped modeling—an expert model approach and a coping model approach—were compared as to the relative effectiveness of each method in reducing beginning counselors' anxiety toward a counseling interview. Those persons who viewed expert models significantly reduced situationally related anxiety following participation in an analogue interview. Persons who viewed coping models had nominal but nonsignificant reductions in anxiety. In neither group was anxiety significantly related to counselor performance. A modicum of anxiety may be a desirable attribute in beginning counselors. The relative merit of each kind of modeling strategy is discussed.