Resonance,Moorean Theories,and a Reflective Endorsement Approach to Value

I argue that Moorean theories of value have a difficult time accommodating the resonance requirement, that is, the platitude that we should value what's valuable, while a sophisticated reflective endorsement theory of value and the resonance requirement are perfectly consistent. To this extent, a sophisticated reflective endorsement theory has a significant advantage over the Moorean approach. The reflective endorsement theory that I endorse emphasizes systematic exposure to possible sources of satisfaction, as well as a similarity principle of practical rationality.     

Group typicality,group loyalty and cognitive development

Over the course of childhood, children's thinking about social groups changes in a variety of ways. Developmental Subjective Group Dynamics (DSGD) theory emphasizes children's understanding of the importance of conforming to group norms. Abrams et al.'s study, which uses DSGD theory as a framework, demonstrates the social cognitive skills underlying young elementary school children's thinking about group norms. Future research on children's thinking about groups and group norms should explore additional elements of this topic, including aspects of typicality beyond loyalty.     

Knowledge,Credit, and Cognitive Agency

According to credit theories of knowledge, S knows that p only if S deserves credit for truly believing that p. This article argues that any adequate credit theory has to explain the conditions under which beliefs are attributable to subjects. It then presents a general account of these conditions and defends two models of cognitive agency. Finally, the article explains how an agent‐based approach rescues the credit theory from an apparent counterexample. The article's defense of the credit theory is qualified, however, for one lesson that emerges is that credit theories are theories of subjective justification, not theories of knowledge.     

The Frequency with which a Group of Unselected College Students Experience Colored Dreaming and Colored Hearing

The principal aim of this report has been to clear the air with regard to number development theory and research. We began with a brief overview of the status of the number concept in pure mathematics and psychology. It was argued that although there are clear methological differences between pure mathematical and psychological approaches to the study of number, the two approaches are substantively complementary. Both are attempts to found the number concept on underlying psychological processes.

Three influential mathematical theories of number and three metamathematical criteria by which such theories are judged (consistency, completeness, categoricalness) then were summarized. The first theory, originally proposed by Peano (30) and von Neumann (49), postulates that the number concept may be reduced to a wholistic property of the natural numbers: viz., their inherent ordering. It was found that Peano-von Neumann's ordinal theory allows one to construct natural numbers without contradiction (consistency) and to construct all the natural numbers (completeness). However, the ordinal theory is not only a theory of number; it is a theory of all ordered progressions. The second theory, originally proposed by Russell (39, 40, 41, 42, 51, 52) and Frege (15), postulates that the number concept may be reduced to an atomistic property of the natural numbers: viz., the fact that each natural number is a class which includes all classes containing a particular number of elements. It was found that Russell-Frege's class theory does not allow one either to construct natural numbers without contradiction (inconsistency) or to construct all the natural numbers (incompleteness). The third theory, originally proposed by Piaget (31, 32), is a combination of the Peano-von Neumann and Russell-Frege theories; i.e., it founds number simultaneously on the wholistic property of order and the atomistic property of class. Piaget's theory was found to be contradictory (inconsistent) and to contain a superfluous undefined concept. A comparative analysis of the three theories revealed that although none of them is universally accepted as an ultimate theory of number, Peano-von Neumann's ordinal theory is by far the most satisfactory of the three by metamathematical criteria.

Each of the mathematical theories of number was translated into a cognitive developmental theory by substituting “developmental priority” of “mathematical priority.” The first theory postulated that children's number concepts derive from a prior understanding of the quantification of ordinal relations (ordination). The second theory postulated that children's number concepts derive from a prior understanding of the quantification of classes (cardination). The third theory postulated that children's number concepts derive from a prior understanding of both ordination and cardination. Published research which pertains to the postulates of each of these theories was reviewed (2, 8, 9, 10, 23, 33, 45, 46). Because of incomplete data analyses and poor operational definitions, it was concluded that the existing evidence does not clearly support any of the three theories.

Behavioral methods of assessing ordination, cardination, and natural number competence in children's thinking then were constructed. Care was taken to insure that each behavioral test was the most obvious counterpart of the mathematical definition of the notion that the test was designed to measure. It was argued in this regard that scrupulously precise operational definitions—as opposed to the loose operational definitions that characterize Piaget's (33) original studies of number development—are essential if we hope to decide which of the competing theories of number development is the most tenable. Two developmental studies were reported. In the first study, there were three principal findings: (a) Ordination was found to emerge in three stages (no ordering, spatial ordering, ordination). (b) Cardination was found to emerge in three stages (no correspondence, one-to-many and many-to-one correspondence, one-to-one correspondence). (c) Ordination was found to emerge long before cardination. In the second study, there were three principal findings: (a) The major findings of the first study were replicated. (b) Ordination was found to emerge prior to natural number competence. (c) Cardination was not found to emerge prior to natural number competence. It was concluded that the theory of number development which corresponds to the most satisfactory of the three mathematical theories—namely, the ordinal theory—is consistently supported by the developmental findings.

Possible explanations of the cognitive-developmental sequences reported in the two studies were considered. It was suggested that Flavell's (14) notion of item structure probably accounts for all the sequences. Flavell's notion of item structure specifies that a developmental sequence of the form X₁ → X₂ obtains between two cognitive items when the use of X₂ logically presupposes the use of X₁. It was argued in this regard that the sequences reported in the two studies each reflect logical relationships mentioned in the earlier review of mathematical number theories. Finally, the epistemological question of why such a close relationship exists between logical priorities and cognitive-developmental sequences was considered. It was concluded that there must be at least some structural isomorphism between the domains of cognition and pure mathematics.     

Consumer Decision Making and Image Theory: Understanding Value‐Laden Decisions

Consumers are often confronted with value‐laden decisions that challenge their principles and beliefs. For example, many consumers with strong social responsibility principles consider the effects of general corporate behavior (e.g., political views, environmental disasters) and of the product's manufacture, consumption, or disposal (e.g., animal testing, environmental harm) on society's overall well‐being. Because these product dimensions do not fit easily into traditional decision theories, a new conceptual framework that incorporates and emphasizes the consumer's enduring principles and values is explored in this study. The results indicate that image theory (Beach & Mitchell, 1987) provides a useful structure for describing the decision process in a value‐laden decision context. This study also expands our understanding of image theory by examining all 3 images (values, goals, and strategies) simultaneously in the same decision context for the first time.     

Warriors,authors and baseball coaches: the meaning of metaphor in theories of family therapy

This article examines the metaphors family therapists use in their theories to reveal aspects of the theories which are not explicitly stated, using Whitaker's symbolic experiential therapy, Minuchin's structural therapy and White's narrative therapy as examples. Such examination, drawing on social constructivist understandings of metaphor and meaning making, reveals that Minuchin's metaphors of family as organism and therapist as artist and warrior emphasize the family as relatively holistic and the therapist as relatively interventionist. In contrast, Whitaker's metaphor of family as ecological system or team and therapist as coach emphasizes the interdependence and context sensitivity of the family and relative powerlessness of the therapist to impose change. Finally, White, reflecting his explicitly post‐structural commitment, uses the metaphor of therapy as a journey undertaken with a map and as therapy as an act of re‐narrating a story.     

male self-control and sexual aggression

This study examines judgments of male self-control regarding sexual aggression in dating situations. A survey was conducted using vignettes that described situations where a hypothetical man attempts to have intercourse with his female date, she resists, and he considers various ways of overcoming her resistance. Survey respondents judged these vignettes. The goals of the study were to estimate the prevalence of beliefs about low male self-control, and to examine how contextual information affects these assessments. Contrary to expectations derived from the literature, the large majority of respondents attributed high levels of self-control to men across a wide range of scenarios. As expected, the man's alcohol intoxication reduced perceived control. Against expectations, consensual foreplay and prior sex did not affect ratings. Implications for social learning and rational choice theories of sexual aggression are discussed, with particular emphasis on Ajzen's (1988) theory of planned behavior.     

Suggestive Parallels between Kirton's A-I Theory of Creative Style and Koestler's Bisociative Theory of the Creative Act

ABSTRACT Kirton's Adaption-Innovation (A-I) theory of cognitive style was reviewed with particular regard to the three factors [Sufficiency of Originality, Efficiency, and Rule/Group Conformity] assumed to underlie the basic (AI) continuum. The basic additive model (AI = SO + E + R) set out by Kirton was then related to Koestler's bisociative theory of the creative act. The compatibility of the two theories offered mutual support for both. The intent of this paper is to explore connections between Kirton's Adaption-Innovation Theory and Koestler's theory of the creative act. In Koestler's distinctive term, the “bisociation” of the two theories offers interesting possibilities for reciprocal illumination. Kirton's work, initiated by the publication (Kirton, 1976) of his measure of creative style, the Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory (KAI), will be sketched first, followed by a brief overview of Koestler's 1963 monograph (Koestler, 1967). Parallels between the two theories will be suggested in a final section that casts the three Kirton factor/traits into the conceptual framework of the creative act set out by Koestler.     

Testing the Ideology of Openness: The Comparative Effects of Talking,Writing, and Avoiding a Stressor on Rumination and Health

A persistent assumption across the psychological literature is that talking and writing about one's stress is inherently more beneficial than avoiding it. This study compared the effects of these stress management strategies on personal and relational health. Two hundred and fifty‐one dating individuals focused on a stressor that was a current source of rumination. Writing about one's stressor for 5 consecutive days (without talking about it) decreased anxiety the most. Talking continuously about one's stressor to a dating partner harmed the relationship more than writing about or avoiding it. The effect of talking repeatedly about one's stressor on relationship quality and brooding, however, depended upon the emotional support received from one's dating partner and the ability to reappraise (positively or neutrally) the stressor.     

Support for the domain specificity of implicit beliefs about persons,intelligence, and morality

Implicit theories are beliefs that pertain to the nature of person attributes. Entity theorists believe that a person's attributes are fixed entities, whereas incremental theorists believe that a person's attributes are malleable. Here, the theory was tested using confirmatory factor analysis and examining the relationship between the broad constructs of implicit beliefs about intelligence, persons, and morality and specific measures related to the broad domains. A model drawn from the theory provided strong evidence for implicit theories. Further, evidence in support of domain specific measures was also found. An additional study investigated a hypothesis regarding incremental belief endorsement. Discussion centers on the usefulness of implicit belief measures for basic and applied research.     

What are you dieting for? The role of lay theories in dieters' goal setting

Through a qualitative study of a sample of Weight Watchers dieters, this research provides insight about the relationship between goal setting and lay theories—people's basic assumptions about the malleability of their personal attributes. We find that dieters set very different types of superordinate and subordinate goals depending on the lay theory (entity vs. incremental) they hold. Dieters who hold entity theory, which underscores immutability of abilities, set superordinate goals focused on avoiding negative social evaluations. These dieters also seem to set subordinate goals that minimize effort in diet, physical activity, and the use of group meetings necessary for weight loss. Among dieters holding incremental theory, which emphasizes malleability of abilities through learning, weight loss is guided by superordinate goals that promote change in the self. Incremental‐theory dieters also set subordinate goals that encourage rather than limit revamping lifestyle. These findings offer contributions to lay theories and goal setting in consumer research as well as implications for developing more successful weight‐loss practices. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ethics,Identity and the Boundaries of the Person

Abstract

Ethical theories and theories of the person constrain each other, in that a proposition about the person may be a reason for or against an ethical proposition, and conversely. An important class of such propositions about the person concern the boundaries of the person. These boundaries enclose a person's defining properties, which constitute his identity. A person's identity may partly determine and partly be determined by his ethical judgments. An equilibrium between one's identity and one's ethical judgments is the counterpart, at the personal level, of the philosophical ideal of reflective equilibrium between a theory of the person and an ethical theory.     

Einstein,his theories,and his aesthetic considerations

This article deals with the question whether aesthetic considerations affected Einstein in formulating both his theories of relativity. The opinions of philosophers and historians alike are divided on this matter. Thus, Gerald Holton supports the view that Einstein employed aesthetic considerations in formulating his theory of special relativity whereas Jim Shelton opposes it, one of his reasons being that Einstein did not mention such considerations. The other theory, namely, that of general relativity, is discussed by John D. Norton. He asserts that the successful completion of this theory was due to Einstein's adherence to mathematical simplicity resulting from experience, as Einstein himself stated, and not from an aesthetic drive, to which he did not refer. The present work attempts to overcome this deficiency indirectly by investigating Einstein's aesthetic awareness and its consequences for his work. It is found that this awareness was imbedded in his perception of nature and is linked to the criteria (such as simplicity) that guided him in formulating his theories. The conclusion thus reached is that aesthetic considerations did play a role in Einstein's endeavour, contrary to the assertions of Shelton and Norton.     

Theoretical Synergy: Evolving Understanding of Organizational Diversity Dynamics

The author discusses the power of cumulative theory generation in which two or more grounded theories are joined utilizing the constant comparative method of analysis. He introduces an example of such theoretical synergy between his theory of weathering change and Gregory's and Thomas' work on diversity dynamics. Initial grounded theory analysis by Gregory and Raffanti indicates that combining relevant aspects of weathering and diversity management has the potential to generate powerful explanatory and operational theories.     

Globalisation,society and religion: from mono‐metastructural theory to metatheoretical reflexivity

Examining globalisation theories, Eduardo Mendieta has come to the conclusion that there is a conceptual link between religion and social theory when theorising globalisation. His preference is for metatheoretical reflexivity type theories of globalisation that, in contrast with mono‐metastructural and matrix rearrangement theories, incorporate conceptual reflection on ‘religion’. With this typology in mind, the work of Ninian Smart and Wilfred Cantwell Smith, two authors in the study of religion for whom the era of globalisation was a central element in developing their views on religion and the study of religion, will be compared. Whereas Smart's views do not fundamentally break away from mono‐metastructural type theories, Smith's work, although highly problematic, gives some hints for developing a meta‐theoretical reflexivity type theory of religion, society and globalisation.     

The Logical Problem and the Theoretician's Dilemma

The theory‐theory of human uniqueness posits that the capacity to theorize, in a way strongly analogous to theorizing in scientific practice, was a key innovation in the hominid lineage and was responsible for many of our unique cognitive traits. One of the central arguments that its proponents have used to support the claim that animals are not theorists, the logical problem, bears strong similarities to Hempel's theoretician's dilemma, which purports to show that theories are unnecessary. This similarity threatens to undermine both the claim that theorizing serves a unique, adaptive role in human cognition and our ability to test for the presence of theories. I examine two historical responses to the theoretician's dilemma and argue that they open up strategies for experimentally testing for theoretical ability in other animals.     

Topic-relevant cognition and empathic accuracy in laboratory discussions of safer sex

Abstract

The present study sought to identify some of the mechanisms that make safer sex such a difficult topic to talk about. Fifty six dating couples participated in a laboratory study in which the opposite-sex members of two pairs of couples engaged in two discussions of safer sex (or a control topic), each time with a different opposite-sex partner (their own dating partner or an opposite-sex stranger). The results indicated that discussions of safer sex evoke in dating partners a high level of perceived goal-incompatibility, difficulty maintaining one's focus on the topic, and difficulty in reading the other partner's thoughts and feelings. These reactions did not occur in response to the control topic. This initial demonstration study is important with respect to the processes it implicates, but further clarification is needed regarding the specific real-life conditions in which these processes do, and do not, occur.     

Issues in the dating violence research: A review of the literature

Since the 1980s, a growing research literature on violence in dating relationships has emerged, raising considerable concern about the extent of violence occurring in campus dating relationships across the United States. Such research has extended the knowledge base not only about the incidence and types of violence occurring but also about consequences, contributing factors, and gender differences. However, there are a number of important research issues in the literature that require clarification and/or research replication. This review identifies and addresses these issues in three sections. The first section of the review examines methodological issues, which include definition, violence rates, and sampling. The second section addresses gender and violence, in particular the relationship of gender to perpetration, victimization, and attitudes. The final section examines the issue of theory and focuses on the relative support for social learning and feminist theories, the two major theories in the dating violence literature. The review concludes with a series of recommendations for further dating violence research, based on identified gaps in the current literature.     

Hutchesonian Inspired Agent‐Based Virtue Ethics

Francis Hutcheson's moral sense theory is the inspiration for both act utilitarianism and a contemporary virtue ethics approach that Michael Slote calls agent‐based virtue ethics. In this essay, I look at other possibilities for ethical theory that spring from Hutcheson's writings and conclude that the landscape of sentimentalist inspired ethics is richer than many realize. I begin this article with a short explanation of Hutcheson's moral sense theory. I explain that Hutcheson proposes and embraces three distinct criteria of moral evaluation, one of which is concerned with the evaluation of motives and two of which are concerned with the evaluation of acts. Act utilitarianism adopts one of the criteria of act evaluation, and Slote's agent‐based virtue ethics adopts the remaining criterion of act evaluation and the criterion of motive evaluation. Then, after pointing out what I believe are shortcomings of Slote's agent‐based virtue ethics, I propose two Hutchesonian inspired theories, each of which is a compromise between act utilitarianism and agent‐based virtue ethics. The first, which I call hypothetical agent‐based virtue ethics, adopts two of Hutcheson's three criteria and is similar structurally to a virtue ethics theory articulated by Rosalind Hursthouse and Linda Zabzebski. The second, which, for lack of a better name, I call Hutchesonian hybridism, adopts all three of Hutcheson's criteria and is a hybrid combination of Slote's actualist agent‐based virtue ethics and hypothetical agent‐based virtue ethics. I argue that both hypothetical agent‐based virtue ethics and Hutchesonian hybridism overcome the shortcomings (pointed out earlier in this essay) of Slote's actualist agent‐based virtue ethics, and that both of these theories are, therefore, worthy of further consideration.     

From Piaget's Epistemic Subject to Pascual-Leone's Metasubject: Epistemic Transition in the Constructivist—Rationalist Theory of Cognitive Development

The explanation of the transition from one epistemic theory to another is an important part of Piaget's genetic epistemology. It is argued that this epistemic transition leads to a retrodictable orthogenetic tendency toward optimizing equilibration. The objective of this paper is to establish a relationship between Piaget's epistemic subject and Pascual-Leone's metasubject and to demonstrate that the postulation of the latter can be considered as an epistemic transition between two constructivist—rationalist theories, which leads to the development of a theory with greater explanatory power. Epistemic transition in this paper refers to a progressive problemshift (cf. Lakatos, 1970), between the theories of Piaget and Pascual-Leone. Piaget builds a “general model” by neglecting individual differences, that is, studies the epistemic subject, whereas Pascual-Leone by incorporating a framework for individual difference variables, studies the metasubject—the psychological organization of the epistemic subject. Empirical evidence is presented to demonstrate that Pascual-Leone's theory of constructive operators is a model of the psychological organism (the metasubject), which is at work inside Piaget's epistemic subject. Finally, it is concluded that the greater explanatory power of Pascual-Leone's theory can be interpreted as an epistemic transition between Piaget's epistemic subject and Pascual-Leone's metasubject.