Synchrony in mother-infant vocal interactions revealed through timed event sequences

This report extends a previous cross-cultural study of synchrony in mother-infant vocal interactions (Bornstein et al., 2015) to immigrant samples. Immigrant dyads from three cultures of origin (Japan, South Korea, South America) living in the same culture of destination (the United States) were compared to nonmigrant dyads in those same cultures of origin and to nonmigrant European American dyads living in the same culture of destination (the United States). This article highlights an underutilized analysis to assess synchrony in mother-infant interaction and extends cross-cultural research on mother-infant vocal interaction. Timing of onsets and offsets of maternal speech to infants and infant nondistress vocalizations were coded separately from 50-min recorded naturalistic observations of mothers and infants. Odds ratios were computed to analyze synchrony in mother-infant vocal interactions. Synchrony was analyzed in three ways -- contingency of timed event sequences, mean differences in contingency by acculturation level and within dyads, and coordination of responsiveness within dyads. Immigrant mothers were contingently responsive to their infants’ vocalizations, but only Korean immigrant infants were contingently responsive to their mothers’ vocalizations. For the Japanese and South American comparisons, immigrant mothers were more contingently responsive than their infants (but not robustly so for South American immigrants). For the Korean comparison, mean differences in contingent responsiveness were found among acculturation groups (culture of origin, immigrant, culture of destination), but not between mothers and infants. Immigrant dyads’ mean levels of responsiveness did not differ. Immigrant mothers’ and infants’ levels of responsiveness were coordinated. Strengths and flexibility of the timed event sequential analytic approach to assessing synchrony in mother-infant interactions are discussed, particularly for culturally diverse samples.     

The Cross-Modal Coordination of Interpersonal Timing: Six-Week-Olds Infants' Gaze with Adults' Vocal Behavior

The purpose of this study was to examine the hypothesis that 6-week-old infants are capable of coordinated interpersonal timing within social interactions. Coordinated interpersonal timing refers to changes in the timing of one individual's behavior as a function of the timing of another individual's behavior. Each of 45, first-born 6-week-old infants interacted with his or her mother and a stranger for a total of 14 minutes. The interactions were videotaped and coded for the gaze behavior of the infants and the vocal behavior of the mothers and strangers. Time-series regression analyses were used to assess the extent to which the timing of each of the infants' gazes was coordinated with the timing of the adults' vocal behavior. The results revealed that (a) coordinated timing occurs between infants and their mothers and between infants and strangers as early as when infants are 6 weeks old, and (b) strangers coordinated the timing of their pauses with the infants to a greater extent than did mothers. The findings are discussed in terms of the role of temporal sensitivity in social interaction.     

Acoustic parameters of infant-directed singing in mothers with depressive symptoms

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between mothers’ depressive symptoms and the acoustic parameters of infant-directed (ID) singing. Participants included 80 mothers and their 3- to 9-month-old infants. A digital recording was made of each mother's voice while singing to her infant. Extraction and analyses of vocal data revealed a main effect of tempo, meaning that as mothers reported more depressive symptoms, they tended to sing faster to their infants. Additionally, an interaction effect indicated that mothers with depressive symptoms were more likely to sing with tonal key clarity to their male infants. These findings suggest that as mothers experience depressive symptoms, their ID singing may lack the sensitivity and emotional expression that infants need for affect regulation. An intervention that combines interaction coaching and ID singing may help mothers with depressive symptoms to engage in sensitive and emotionally synchronized interactions with their infants.     

Vocal imitation between mothers and infants

The aim of the present mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal study was to observe and describe some aspects of vocal imitation in natural mother-infant interaction. Specifically, maternal imitation of infant utterances was observed in relation to the imitative modeling, mirrored equivalence, and social guided learning models of infant speech development. Nine mother-infant dyads were audio-video recorded. Infants were recruited at different ages between 6 and 11 months and followed for 3 months, providing a quasi-longitudinal series of data from 6 through 14 months of age. It was observed that maternal imitation was more frequent than infant imitation even though vocal imitation was a rare maternal response. Importantly, mothers used a range of contingent and noncontingent vocal responses in interaction with their infants. Mothers responded to three-quarters of their infant's vocalizations, including speech-like and less mature vocalization types. The infants’ phonetic repertoire expanded with age. Overall, the findings are most consistent with the social guided learning approach. Infants rarely imitated their mothers, suggests a creative self-motivated learning mechanism that requires further investigation.     

Expressive timing and interactional synchrony between mothers and infants: cultural similarities, cultural differences, and the immigration experience

The spontaneous vocal interactions of 30 mothers and their 2- to 5-month-old infants from India, France, and the United States were analyzed using an acoustic analysis method. Similarities and differences in vocal interactional patterns were highlighted between the three groups. On the one hand, in the three cultural contexts mother–infant vocal interaction was found to be organized around hierarchical temporal intervals of the same approximate length, had the same balance between regular rhythm and variation (“expressive timing”), and manifested the same coordination between mother and infant vocalization (“interactional synchrony”). On the other hand, the three groups also revealed cultural variability. The Indian mothers had more togetherness with their babies, as indexed by less space between vocal turns and more overlap of mother and baby vocalizations. They also produced a higher ratio of nonverbal to verbal vocalizations. The spontaneous vocal interactions of a group of 30 Indian immigrant dyads were also studied. With respect to culturally variable characteristics, the vocal interaction of immigrant dyads living in the United States showed signs of change in the direction of the host culture. With respect to characteristics shared by all three nonimmigrant groups, the immigrant dyads showed lower levels of expressive timing and interactional synchrony than the nonimmigrant group as a whole.     

Tonal synchrony in mother–infant interaction based on harmonic and pentatonic series

This study reports the occurrence of ‘tonal synchrony’ as a new dimension of early mother–infant interaction synchrony. The findings are based on a tonal and temporal analysis of vocal interactions between 15 mothers and their 3-month-old infants during 5 min of free-play in a laboratory setting. In total, 558 vocal exchanges were identified and analysed, of which 84% reflected harmonic or pentatonic series. Another 10% of the exchanges contained absolute and/or relative pitch and/or interval imitations. The total durations of dyads being in tonal synchrony were normally distributed (M = 3.71, SD = 2.44). Vocalisations based on harmonic series appeared organised around the major triad, containing significantly more simple frequency ratios (octave, fifth and third) than complex ones (non-major triad tones). Tonal synchrony and its characteristics are discussed in relation to infant-directed speech, communicative musicality, pre-reflective communication and its impact on the quality of early mother–infant interaction and child's development.     

The role of oxytocin in early mother-infant interactions: Variations in maternal affect attunement

The aim of the present research was to investigate the relationship between oxytocin and maternal affect attunement, as well as the role of affect attunement in the relationship between oxytocin and infant social engagement during early mother-infant interactions. Forty-three mother-infant dyads participated in the present study when infants were 4 months. They were observed during (1) a situation where no communication took place and (2) a natural interaction between mother and infant. During this procedure, three saliva samples from mothers and their infants were collected to determine their levels of oxytocin at different time points. Maternal affect attunement (maintaining attention, warm sensitivity) and infant interactive behaviors (gaze, positive, and negative affect) were coded during the natural interaction. Results indicated that overall maternal oxytocin functioning was negatively related to her warm sensitivity, while infant oxytocin reactivity together with maternal affect attunement were associated with infant positive social engagement with their mothers. Specifically, infant oxytocin reactivity was significantly related to their gazes at mother, but only for infants of highly attuned mothers. These results point to the complex role oxytocin plays in parent-infant interactions while emphasizing the need to analyze both overall oxytocin functioning as well as reactivity as different indices of human affiliative behavior.     

The vocal dialogue in 9/11 pregnant widows and their infants: Specificities of co-regulation

Mothers who were pregnant and widowed on September 11, 2001, and their 4–6-month infants (in utero on 9/11) were filmed during face-to-face interaction and their vocal dialogues were examined via microanalysis. Mothers were White, well-educated, mean age 34.3 years, and far from the World Trade Center site on 9/11; infants were 4–6 months, half female. We examined the bi-directional, moment-by-moment co-regulation of the timing of vocal dialogue, and particularly turn taking, in mother-infant and stranger-infant interactions, with time-series models. We analyzed the contingent coordination of durations of (1) vocalizations of the turn-holder, and (2) switching-pauses at the moment of the turn exchange. The switching pause is an aspect of the rhythm of the turn-holder who, after taking a turn, yields the floor to the partner through the switching pause. Turn taking is the lynchpin of dialogue, and the bi-directional contingent coordination of the switching-pause regulates the turn exchange. Both partners showed signs of risk and resilience. The 9/11 mothers did not coordinate the timing of turn taking with their infants, a highly unusual finding. In contrast, the 9/11 infants did coordinate the timing of turn taking with their mothers, and with the “stranger,” forms of resilience. We propose that the 9/11 mother’s difficulty coordinating with the infant’s turn taking rhythm is a mode of transmission of her trauma to the infant. This work expands our knowledge of the specificities of co-regulation in the context of the 9/11 trauma.     

Maternal sensitivity,infant temperament,and the development of early feeding problems

Early feeding problems, assessed in maternal reports about general problems and refusal behaviors, were investigated in a normal sample (n = 115) at the ages of 10 months and 2 years. In a longitudinal design, stability of feeding problems was studied. A model for development of nonorganic failure to thrive proposed by Chatoor (1989: Chatoor & Egan, 1983) was used as a guide in selection of potential antecedents to early feeding problems. The predictive value of parent-rated infant temperament and directly observed maternal sensitivity for explaining variance in feeding problems was explored. The results showed moderate stability for feeding problems. Feeding problems at both ages were predicted by interactions between infant temperament and maternal sensitivity. At 10 months feeding problems were marginally associated with an interaction between sensitivity and infant manageability (degree of negative emotionality); less sensitive mothers with less manageable infants reported more refusal behaviors. At the age of 2 years irregular infants were reported to have more problems if their mothers were less sensitive to their signals. The results are discussed in relation to studies of more severe feeding problems in infancy, and the Chatoor model was found to contribute to an understanding of the development of everyday infant feeding problems in a normal sample. © 1997 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health     

Maternal postpartum depression is a risk factor for infant emotional variability at 4 months

Maternal postpartum depression (PPD) is a risk for disruption of mother–infant interaction. Infants of depressed mothers have been found to display less positive, more negative, and neutral affect. Other studies have found that infants of mothers with PPD inhibit both positive and negative affect. In a sample of 28 infants of mothers with PPD and 52 infants of nonclinical mothers, we examined the role of PPD diagnosis and symptoms for infants’ emotional variability, measured as facial expressions, vocal protest, and gaze using microanalysis, during a mother–infant face-to-face interaction. PPD symptoms and diagnosis were associated with (a) infants displaying fewer high negative, but more neutral/interest facial affect events, and (b) fewer gaze off events.  PPD diagnosis, but not symptoms, was associated with less infant vocal protest. Total duration of seconds of infant facial affective displays and gaze off was not related to PPD diagnosis or symptoms, suggesting that when infants of depressed mothers display high negative facial affect or gaze off, these expressions are more sustained, indicating lower infant ability to calm down and re-engage, interpreted as a disturbance in self-regulation. The findings highlight the importance of not only examining durations, but also frequencies, as the latter may inform infant emotional variability.     

Young infants' vocalizations towards mother versus stranger: associations with the infant–mother relationship

Infants' differential vocal response (DVR) towards their mother and a female stranger at 3 months of age has been predominantly investigated as an index of early cognitive functioning. The present study explored the relationship between DVR and different infant and mother indicators of the developing relationship quality in a sample of 23 mother–infant dyads. Mother–infant interactions and stranger–infant interactions were videotaped during home visits when the infants were 3 months old. At the age of 12 months, infants' behaviour was assessed in the Ainsworth's strange situation. In both assessments, mothers noted the infants' behavioural states on 3 successive days. Results revealed a specific relation between DVR and the emotional atmosphere of the early mother–infant interaction. Particularly, DVR was less pronounced in favour of the mother when the mother displayed emotional expressions defined as rejection. DVR is discussed as an index that may indicate both infant emotional engagement and infant cognitive competencies. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

婴儿运动经验与母婴社会性情绪互动行为的关系

本研究考察了个体早期自主位移运动——爬行经验与母婴社会性情绪互动的关系。对79名8、9个月婴儿的母亲进行访谈,结果发现,在8个月婴儿中,婴儿会爬与否对母婴社会性情绪互动行为有一定作用,但这种作用没有达到显著水平;在9个月时,婴儿是否会爬则对母婴社会性情绪互动行为有显著影响,表明爬行经验对母婴社会性情绪互动行为的影响存在累积效应与年龄特异性。     

Mother-infant responsiveness: timing, mutual regulation, and interactional context

Mutual regulation during the naturalistic interaction of 150 mothers and their 4-month-old infants was investigated from a dynamic systems perspective. Microanalyses of a wide range of behaviors and analysis of contingencies indicated that a 3-s time period best captured contingencies. Both mothers and infants communicated primarily through vocal signals and responses, although maternal touches and infant looks also elicited responses. Although more expressive mothers did not have infants who behaved similarly, levels of contingent responsiveness between partners were significantly associated and occurred within distinct behavioral channels, suggesting coregulated interactional processes in which contingently responsive mothers shape their infants' communications toward mutual similarity. Mothers were more influential than infants over object play, whereas infants were more influential than mothers over expressive behavior. Interactional context consistently influenced contingent responsiveness; there was less mutual responsiveness when the infant was exploring, being held, or looking.     

Rhythms of dialogue in infancy: comments on Jaffe,Beebe, Feldstein,Crown, and Jasnow (2001)

Analysis of coordinated interpersonal timing has become an important tool for the study of infant-adult, peer, and marital interactions. Past research suggests that social coordination is informative about the quality of the caregiver-child social relationship. Does infant experience of certain types of coordination and pattern in early social interactions with caregivers predict better cognitive and social developmental outcomes? The recent monograph "Rhythms of dialogue in infancy" (Jaffe, Beebe, Feldstein, Crown, & Jasnow, 2001) provides the strongest evidence to date that it does. Moderately coordinated social interactions in early infancy predicted the most favorable developmental outcomes, and degree of coordination was influenced by contextual factors such as setting and nature of the relationship between the infant and its social interaction partner. This study provides a model for future research in this area and points toward important questions for future research on infant-caregiver social interactions.     

Some Personality Characteristics of the Culturally Disadvantaged

The relationship between sensitive maternal behavior and mother-infant vocalization during feedings was examined in an effort to determine this situational meaning of Ainsworth's concept of sensitivity. Ss were 28 white, middle-class mothers and their infants. Excerpts of home feedings videotaped at 6 and 9 months were coded for frequency of contingent vocal interaction and quality of vocal affect. Sensitive mothers were distinguished from insensitive mothers at each age period by differing vocal patterns. At 6 months, infants of sensitive mothers vocalized significantly less than did infants of insensitive mothers. Mothers in both groups responded to their infants' vocalizations equally as often. At 9 months, infants in both groups vocalized the same amount, while sensitive mothers vocalized more often in response to their infants than did insensitive mothers. The only significant difference in vocal affect was found in the greater positive affect among sensitive mothers at 9 months.     

Maternal depression and locus of control orientation as predictors of dyadic play behavior

Maternal locus of control orientation and depression were examined in relation to joint negotiation and coordination of mother-child play at 20 months. Subjects were 51 high-social-risk mothers and children. Mothers completed the I-E Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory prenatally and at 20 months; mother-child interaction was videotaped in a laboratory playroom at 20 months. Tapes were coded using the Control-Autonomy Balance Scales to evaluate maternal control and sensitivity and child engagement and autonomy. Analyses of dyadic play behavior indicated that maternal controllingness was related to an external locus of control orientation. Child engagement during play was related to the resolution of mild maternal depression.     

Mothers with depressive symptoms: cross-situational consistency and temporal stability of their parenting behavior

In the present study, it has been hypothesized that anxious and depressed mothers may show less typical behavior in a laboratory observational setting because they may be more affected by unfamiliarity and the social evaluative meaning of the situation. They may thus show low consistency across laboratory and home assessments. A sample of 101 mother-infant pairs participated in the longitudinal study. Laboratory and home observations of mother-infant interaction episodes were conducted at the infant ages of 4, 8, and 12 months. Consistent with expectations, at 4 months the association between laboratory- and home-assessed maternal sensitivity was significantly moderated by maternal depression/anxiety: in highly anxious/depressed mothers the association between laboratory- and home-assessed sensitivity was weak, whereas a strong association was found in mothers with low anxiety/depression. At 8 months this interaction was still marginally significant and at 12 months it had disappeared. Thus, mothers with depressive symptoms showed less consistent behavior across the two settings of the first assessment wave, and with increased familiarity with the procedures of the longitudinal study, their behavioral consistency increased and no longer differed from that of well mothers.     

The impact of optimality on maternal sensitivity in mothers with substance abuse and psychiatric problems and their infants at 3 months

The main aim of this study was to investigate the predictive validity of four different optimality indexes, as well as infant perinatal status, in relation to maternal sensitivity in interaction at 3 months. The four optimality indexes comprised items related to substance abuse, psychiatric condition, relational experience and socioeconomic status (SES). Maternal sensitivity in mother-infant interaction was assessed in two different groups of mothers. One group consisted of mothers with substance abuse and psychiatric problems who underwent treatment during pregnancy. The other group of mothers had neither substance abuse nor psychiatric problems. The expectant mothers were interviewed in the third trimester of pregnancy. Medical records and meconium were obtained from the infants at birth. Three months after birth, maternal sensitivity in mother-infant interaction was assessed. Altogether 79 mother-infant dyads participated in the study. The mothers' optimality associated with relational experiences, as well as the infants' perinatal status were found to predict maternal sensitivity in mother-infant interaction at 3 months. The SES index was also significantly related to maternal sensitivity. The relation between group and maternal sensitivity was mediated by the mothers' optimality associated with relational experiences. This study points to the importance of addressing the mothers' own relational experiences and their current representations of motherhood during treatment, in order to support and enhance maternal sensitivity.     

Mothers’ neural responses to infant faces are associated with activation of the maternal care system and observed intrusiveness with their own child

Certain infant facial characteristics, referred to as baby schema, are thought to automatically trigger parenting behavior and affective orientation toward infants. Electroencephalography (EEG) is well suited to assessing the intuitive nature and temporal dynamics of parenting responses, due to its millisecond temporal resolution. Little is known, however, about the relations between neural processing of infant cues and actual parenting behavior in a naturalistic setting. In the present study we examined the event-related potentials (ERPs) of mothers (N = 33) watching infant faces of varying attractiveness, in relation to activation of the maternal care system and the mothers’ observed parenting behavior (sensitivity, nonintrusiveness) with their own child (2–6 years old). The results revealed that, irrespective of the cuteness of the infant face, mothers’ neural processing of infant faces involved both early P1 and P2 components (related to orienting/detecting processes) and late positive potentials (LPPs; related to more controlled cognitive evaluation/attentional engagement). Increased early detection and processing of infant faces (reflected by P1 and P2 activity) was related to increased activation of the parental care system. In later stages of face processing, increased attentional engagement with infant faces (as reflected by LPP activity) was associated with more intrusiveness of a mother with her own child during interaction. These findings suggest that individual variations in responses to infant stimuli are associated with individual differences in parental care system activation and parenting quality. Furthermore, the parental care system might be activated relatively automatically, but actual parenting and caregiving behavior requires more conscious control.