Integrating leadership: The leadership circumplex

The present study aims to integrate leadership conceptualizations into one overarching model, using a “leadership circumplex”. Two studies describe the construction and examine the psychometric characteristics of an operationalization of the leadership circumplex, the Circumplex Leadership Scan (CLS). Results showed that the CLS complies with the criteria of a true circumplex. Furthermore, scales, representing leadership styles, showed reasonable to high reliability. A third study confirmed the stability of the CLS structure and additionally explored the circumplex structure of subordinates’ ratings of their leaders, which were found to have the same underlying circumplex structure. A fourth study was conducted to assess the convergent validity with other leadership styles from the existing leadership literature, the predictive validity of the styles, as well as the test–retest reliability. A fifth study confirmed the predictive validity results observed in Study 4 using different-source ratings of leadership outcomes. Finally, a sixth study explored the possibility of creating a short version of the CLS.     

Multisource Feedback and Leaders' Goal Performance: Moderating effects of rating purpose,rater perspective,and performance dimension

The main purposes of this study are to examine whether multisource feedback ratings predict leaders' organizational goal performance, and whether the relationships are consistent across the two rating purposes (developmental, administrative), two leadership dimensions behaviors (Consideration, Initiating Structure), and three rating perspectives (supervisor, self, and ‘other’ raters, i.e., peers and subordinates). Leaders (n=396) in a large organization in the transportation industry participated in two multisource feedback programs, the first for developmental purposes and the second 8 months later for administrative purposes. Approximately 1 month later, they were rated by their supervisor on their effectiveness in attaining five organizational performance goals (financial, safety, customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, diversity). Results revealed that both developmental ratings and administrative ratings uniquely predicted leaders' goal performance. However, both leadership dimension and rater perspective moderated these relationships. Leadership behaviors associated with Consideration were stronger predictors of goal performance for supervisor ratings, whereas behaviors associated with Initiating Structure were stronger predictors of goal performance for self and other ratings.     

The Developmental Leadership Questionnaire (DLQ): some psychometric properties

The development leadership model (Larsson et al., 2003), designed to introduce refinements to the transformational leadership model, has been adopted for use in the Swedish Armed Forces. The Developmental Leadership Questionnaire (DLQ) was constructed to measure important parts of the model. The main aim of the study was to evaluate some psychometric properties of the DLQ. Most analyses are based on two subsets of individuals from a sample mostly consisting of male Swedish, military officers, each of whom has rated a given leader (n = 450 and 449 respectively). A second sample consisted of Swedish military cadets (n = 141). The dimensionality was assessed with a confirmatory factor analysis. Most DLQ scales were reasonably well reproduced and showed high or acceptable internal consistency. When related to perceived results of leadership (self-rated by leaders and rated by subordinates), results from multiple regression analyses supported what could be predicted by the theoretical model. It was concluded that the DLQ has acceptable psychometric properties and that the theoretical refinements introduced to the developmental leadership model were empirically supported.     

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEAUTY SALON MANAGERS

A field study was conducted in a chain of beauty salons to determine how the leadership behavior of salon managers is related to managerial effectiveness. Leadership behavior was measured with a new questionnaire that was filled out anonymously by subordinates. Strong correlations were found between some of the leadership scales and salon profits, sales increase, performance ratings, subordinate satisfaction, and role ambiguity. The results were consistent with managerial role requirements derived from an analysis of the leadership situation.     

Gender Differences in Responding to Conflict in the Workplace: Evidence from a Large Sample of Working Adults

This investigation tested for gender effects in conflict behaviors by examining the ratings made by the bosses, peers, and subordinates of over 2,000 working adults participating in leadership development programs conducted in the U.S.; the effects of two confounding factors—age and organizational status—were controlled in all analyses. Consistent with predictions derived from a gender role analysis, women were rated as significantly more likely to engage in almost every constructive behavior. Also as predicted, men were rated as more likely to engage in active destructive behaviors. Rater gender had no effect for peers and subordinates, but female bosses made more positive ratings of targets than male bosses. In general, bosses rated targets somewhat higher on passive responses.     

Predicting Transformational Leadership in Naval Cadets: Effects of Personality Hardiness and Training

The present study investigated whether personality hardiness predicts peer ratings of leadership style in Navy officer cadets. Cadets ( n  = 71) completed the Dispositional Resiliency (hardiness) Scale, and later rated their peers using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (full range of leadership model). Results show the hardy–commitment facet predicted peer ratings of all leadership styles covered in the model, both before and after and intensive military exercise. The challenge facet was a positive predictor of transformational and transactional leadership and was negatively related to passive-avoidant leadership. Transformational leadership predicted leader performance, as indexed by military development grades; and a partial mediation effect was found for hardiness on the relation between transformational leadership and leader performance.     

Effects of Gender, Education, and Age upon Leaders’ Use of Influence Tactics and Full Range Leadership Behaviors

Relationships of gender, age, and education to leadership styles and leaders’ influence tactics were examined with 56 leaders and 234 followers from a variety of organizations. Leadership behaviors were measured with the Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ—rater version). Influence tactics were measured with Yukl’s Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ). Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was used to test behavioral differences attributed to leaders’ gender, age, and education groups, as well as the interaction of age and education with gender. Results show that gender produced a small direct effect on leadership behaviors. The interaction of gender and education produced consistent differences in leadership behaviors. Implications for future research are provided, and a call for re-analysis of previously published work is advised.     

Is Smoking Detrimental to Effective Supervision?

This paper examines the relationship between the smoking hehavior of supervisors and the effectiveness ratings attributed to them by their subordinates on 5 leadership eflectiveness measures. A sample of 3.422 assessments revealed that supervisors who smoke were rated lower than were nonsmoking supervisors. The findings suggest that smoking tobacco is associated with lower supervisory effectiveness, as perceived by subordinates. The causes for such lower ratings are attributed to bias against smokers in the workplace. actual performance differences, or both.     

Adaptive self-regulation: meeting others' expectations of leadership and performance

The authors used longitudinal multisource field data to examine core aspects of the adaptive self-regulation model (A. S. Tsui & S. J. Ashford, 1994) in terms of linkages between self-monitoring, discrepancy in manager match-to-position, 5 measures of leadership, and manager performance. At Time 1, 64 superiors of focal managers rated the managers' matches to their positions within the organization; at Time 3, they rated the managers' performance. At Time 2, the 64 focal managers completed a measure of self-monitoring, and 192 subordinates rated the focal managers' leadership behaviors. Results of partial least squares analysis revealed that discrepancy in manager match-to-position was associated with reductions in laissez faire and passive management-by-exception behaviors and increases in transformational leadership behavior. Self-monitoring was positively associated with all 5 leadership behaviors. Performance was related positively to transformational leadership behavior and negatively to passive management-by-exception and contingent-reward behaviors     

Transformational leadership and moral reasoning

Terms such as moral and ethical leadership are used widely in theory, yet little systematic research has related a sociomoral dimension to leadership in organizations. This study investigated whether managers' moral reasoning (n = 132) was associated with the transformational and transactional leadership behaviors they exhibited as perceived by their subordinates (n = 407). Managers completed the Defining Issues Test (J. R. Rest, 1990), whereas their subordinates completed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (B. M. Bass & B. J. Avolio, 1995). Analysis of covariance indicated that managers scoring in the highest group of the moral-reasoning distribution exhibited more transformational leadership behaviors than leaders scoring in the lowest group. As expected, there was no relationship between moral-reasoning group and transactional leadership behaviors. Implications for leadership development are discussed.     

Adaptive Self-Regulation: Meeting Others' Expectations of Leadership and Performance

Abstract

The authors used longitudinal multisource field data to examine core aspects of the adaptive self-regulation model (A. S. Tsui & S. J. Ashford, 1994) in terms of linkages between self-monitoring, discrepancy in manager match-to-position, 5 measures of leadership, and manager performance. At Time 1,64 superiors of focal managers rated the managers' matches to their positions within the organization; at Time 3, they rated the managers' performance. At Time 2, the 64 focal managers completed a measure of self-monitoring, and 192 subordinates rated the focal managers' leadership behaviors. Results of partial least squares analysis revealed that discrepancy in manager match-to-position was associated with reductions in laissez faire and passive management-by-exception behaviors and increases in transformational leadership behavior. Self-monitoring was positively associated with all 5 leadership behaviors. Performance was related positively to transformational leadership behavior and negatively to passive management-by-exception and contingent-reward behaviors     

The relationship between psychopathy and the Full Range Leadership Model

While emerging research suggests psychopathic traits and leadership behaviors may be linked, this proposition requires further empirical investigation. This study aims to examine the relationship between psychopathic traits and the Full Range Leadership Model which includes transformational, transactional, and passive leadership styles. Using a cross-sectional design, survey data was collected from 115 students who reported having management experience. Measures included the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-Revised. A four-factor structure of psychopathy positively correlated with passive leadership behavior, namely passive-management-by-exception and laissez-faire, but negatively correlated with individual consideration. This study addresses a research need, and is one of the first to empirically examine the relationship between psychopathic traits and the Full Range Leadership Model. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Is Transformational Leadership Always Perceived as Effective? Male Subordinates' Devaluation of Female Transformational Leaders1

This study investigated the impact of the gender composition of the leader–subordinate dyad on the relationship between leaders' transformational leadership behavior and their subordinates' ratings of the leaders' effectiveness. There were 109 dyads of leaders (58 male, 51 female) paired with a subordinate who was either the same or a different gender from themselves. The relationship between a leader's self‐report on transformational leadership and their subordinates' evaluation of their performance was significantly less positive for female leaders with male subordinates than for female leaders with female subordinates. The male and female subordinates of male leaders rated their performance as equally effective, regardless of their levels of transformational leadership.     

Pseudo‐Transformational Leadership: Model Specification and Outcomes1

A model of pseudo‐transformational leadership was tested in 4 experiments. Pseudo‐transformational leadership is defined by self‐serving, yet highly inspirational leadership behaviors, unwillingness to encourage independent thought in subordinates, and little caring for one's subordinates more generally. Study 1 (N = 167) used vignettes to differentiate among transformational, pseudo‐transformational, and laissez‐faire leadership styles. Study 2 (N = 179) replicated this model using ratings of characters in the film 12 Angry Men ( Fonda, Rose, & Lumet, 1957 ). Study 3 (N = 120) tested the model, controlling for participant perceptions of leader affect and prototypical leadership behaviors. Study 4 (N = 127) extended the ecological validity of the model and range of outcomes. Across the studies, support was obtained for the model.     

The relationship between perceived leadership styles and organisational constraints: An empirical study in Goleman's typology

Introduction

The style of a leader's work influences their subordinates’ motivation and performance as well as the organisation's climate. Supervisors can either eliminate or exaggerate obstacles that impede employees’ pursuit of organisational goals. One of the sources of job stress is organisational constraints. Leaders may influence the degree of such impediments by helping employees or by creating additional demands, depending on how well they understand what their subordinates need. Therefore, a leader's emotional intelligence might be an important factor.

Leader personality and 360‐degree assessments of leader behavior

To investigate the relationship between personality and multi‐source feedback, we assessed 190 health care managers by applying the Understanding Personal Potential personality test, which provides comprehensive measurement of the Big Five dimensions and eight narrower personality traits. Managers' leadership behaviors were assessed by colleagues, supervisors, a random sample of each manager's subordinates as well as the managers themselves using a 360‐degree change, production, employee (CPE) instrument. Hierarchical multivariate regression analysis showed that the Big Five variables were significantly related to the Managers' leadership behavior in all CPE dimensions. Also, addition of narrow personality variables to the Big Five increased explained variance in leadership behavior. This study is the first of its kind to include the full range of viewpoints in a 360‐degree instrument, along with a large number of subordinate assessments. We found that both the strength of the relationship between personality and behavior and the configuration of different predictors varied depending on who did the rating and what leadership orientation was investigated, and this observation merits further investigation.     

Burnout in the information technology sector: Does leadership matter?

The aim of the study was to examine subordinates' level of burnout in relation to how they perceive the leadership style of their direct superior. Subordinates (n = 289) in an Information Technology firm completed Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey, and rated their superior on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. High subordinate burnout was defined as high exhaustion, high cynicism, and low professional efficacy. A structural equation model revealed that transformational leadership was significantly related to cynicism and professional efficacy, while passive-avoidance was significantly related to exhaustion and cynicism. Transactional leadership was not linked to burnout. Neuroticism in subordinates was directly related to all burnout components. The link between passive-avoidant leadership and burnout's key component exhaustion indicates perception of negative leadership behaviours is more important for burnout than perception of positive leadership styles.     

Hurry up! The role of supervisors’ time urgency and self‐perceived status for autocratic leadership and subordinates’ well‐being

This study examines the connections among supervisors’ time urgency, their leadership behavior, and subordinate outcomes. Integrating cognitive perspectives on time urgency with contemporary thinking on the psychological experience of status, we reason that supervisors’ time‐urgent personality relates positively with their autocratic leadership behavior, and we cast supervisors’ self‐perceived status as a moderator of this linkage. Moreover, we enrich this leader‐centric perspective with a complementary, more follower‐centric view, recognizing that the consequences of supervisors’ time urgency likely extend beyond their own behavior to indirectly affect their subordinates’ well‐being at work. We tested our hypotheses using a field sample of 60 supervisors and 277 of their subordinates. Results indicate that (a) supervisors with higher time urgency are more likely to exhibit autocratic leadership behavior when they also perceive themselves as having relatively high status among subordinates, but not when perceiving lower status, and (b) supervisors’ time urgency exhibits a conditional indirect effect (via autocratic leadership) on subordinates’ work stress and time pressure experiences. Hence, this study illustrates an important boundary condition for the consequences of supervisors’ time urgency, and it demonstrates that this personality characteristic not only shapes supervisors’ leadership behavior but also affects the subordinates they are charged with leading.     

Effects of Supervisor “Big Five” Personality on Subordinate Attitudes

Leadership theory has long sought to find traits associated with effective leadership. This study uses the five-factor model of personality to investigate the relationship between the personality of supervisors and aggregated attitudes of subordinates. Results from 131 supervisors and 467 subordinates support the notion that supervisor personality is related to subordinate attitudes. Overall, high levels of supervisor Agreeableness, Emotional Stability and Extraversion, plus low levels of Conscientiousness are related to subordinate ratings of satisfaction with supervisor, overall satisfaction, affective commitment and turnover intentions. However, the relationships are somewhat weak and differ across specific criteria. Implications for these findings are discussed.