Combining gesture with verbal instruction promotes problem-solving skills among young children attempting difficult tasks

Extensive research shows that caregivers’ speech and gestures can scaffold children’s learning. This study examines whether caregivers increase the amount of spoken and gestural instruction when a task becomes difficult for children. We also examine whether increasing the amount of instruction containing both speech and gestures enhances children’s problem-solving. Ninety-three 3- to 4-year-old Chinese children and their caregivers participated in our study. The children tried to assemble two jigsaw puzzles (with 12 pieces in one and 20 in the other); each puzzle was attempted in three phases. The order in which the puzzles were to be solved was randomized. In Phases 1 and 3, the children tried to solve the puzzles alone. In Phase 2, the children received instruction from their caregivers. The children assembled a smaller proportion of the 20-piece puzzle than of the 12-piece one, suggesting that the 20-piece puzzle was more difficult than the 12-piece one. The caregivers produced more spoken and gestural instruction for the 20-piece than for the 12-piece puzzle. The proportion of the instruction employing both speech and gesture (+InstS+InstG) was significantly greater for the 20-piece puzzle than for the 12-piece puzzle. More importantly, the children who received more instruction with +InstS+InstG performed better in solving the 20-piece puzzle than those who received less instruction of the same type. Those who did not receive +InstS+InstG instruction performed less successfully in Phase 3. However, the facilitating effect of instruction with +InstS+InstG was not found with the 12-piece puzzle. Our findings suggest that adults should incorporate speech and gesture in their instruction as frequently as possible when teaching their children to perform a difficult task.     

Use of a self-regulated strategy intervention to improve word problem-solving skills of students with mild disabilities

We investigated the effects of self-regulated strategy instruction on the ability of four elementary-school students with mild handicaps (2 with learning disabilities [LD] and 2 with mild mental retardation [MMR]) to perform 4 types of addition and subtraction word problems. We used a multiple baseline design and a self-instructional strategy to address story problem solving. Results indicated that the strategy was effective in increasing the number of correctly solved word problems. Gains were maintained across a 6 and 8 week follow-up check. The study supports previous research indicating that cognitive strategies are effective for students with LD and suggests that cognitive strategies are appropriate for students with MMR.     

Tonal synchrony in mother–infant interaction based on harmonic and pentatonic series

This study reports the occurrence of ‘tonal synchrony’ as a new dimension of early mother–infant interaction synchrony. The findings are based on a tonal and temporal analysis of vocal interactions between 15 mothers and their 3-month-old infants during 5 min of free-play in a laboratory setting. In total, 558 vocal exchanges were identified and analysed, of which 84% reflected harmonic or pentatonic series. Another 10% of the exchanges contained absolute and/or relative pitch and/or interval imitations. The total durations of dyads being in tonal synchrony were normally distributed (M = 3.71, SD = 2.44). Vocalisations based on harmonic series appeared organised around the major triad, containing significantly more simple frequency ratios (octave, fifth and third) than complex ones (non-major triad tones). Tonal synchrony and its characteristics are discussed in relation to infant-directed speech, communicative musicality, pre-reflective communication and its impact on the quality of early mother–infant interaction and child's development.     

Breastfeeding and the mother–infant relationship—A review

A positive effect of breastfeeding on the mother–infant relationship is often assumed in the scientific literature, but this has not been systematically reviewed. This review aims to clarify the role of breastfeeding in the mother–infant relationship, which is conceptualized as the maternal bond toward the infant and infant attachment toward the mother. Our findings indicate that theoretical mechanisms through which breastfeeding may enhance the maternal bond or infant attachment (i.e., endocrine and sensory factors involved in breastfeeding) can be found in both humans and animal models. However, the few empirical studies investigating this association have not found convincing support for a relation between breastfeeding and the quality of the mother–infant relationship. We therefore conclude that assumptions on a positive role of breastfeeding on the mother–infant relationship are not supported by empirical evidence, and recommendation of breastfeeding should solely be based on its well-documented positive effects on infant and maternal health.     

Beyond IQ: A latent state-trait analysis of general intelligence, dynamic decision making, and implicit learning

The present study investigated cognitive performance measures beyond IQ. In particular, we investigated the psychometric properties of dynamic decision making variables and implicit learning variables and their relation with general intelligence and professional success. N = 173 employees from different companies and occupational groups completed two standard intelligence tests, two dynamic decision making tasks, and two implicit learning tasks at two measurement occasions each. We used structural equation models to test latent state-trait measurement models and the relation between constructs. The results suggest that dynamic decision making and implicit learning are substantially related with general intelligence. Furthermore, general intelligence is the best predictor for income, social status, and educational attainment. Dynamic decision making can predict supervisor ratings even beyond general intelligence.     

Quantitative evaluation of infant behaviour and mother–infant interaction: An overview of a japanese interdisciplinary programme of research

This paper provides an overview of an interdisciplinary programme of research started more than 20 years ago at the University of Tokyo. A major aim of this programme was (and still is) to develop methods and related forms of quantitative analysis that provide rigorous evaluations of infant behaviour from a particular theoretical perspective. In one part of the programme telethermography is used to measure emotional changes in young infants. Contrary to the accepted view in attachment theory, infants as young as 2–3 months showed evidence of stress following separation from the mother (as indexed by a drop in the skin temperature of the infant's forehead). In another part, we established the presence of interpersonal synchrony between arm movements of the newborn and the speech of the mother and other adults, using computer assisted pattern recognition techniques. On the basis of this finding, we have proposed a simulation model of mother-infant interaction from the perspective of system information theory. In general, our programme of research provides a theoretically driven set of techniques and analytical approaches that may provide deeper insights into early development and parenting.     

Adolescent problem behavior: The effect of peers and the moderating role of father absence and the mother-child relationship

Examined the effect of peer problem behavior, the absence of a father or equivalent in the home, and the mother-adolescent relationship as predictors of adolescent problem behavior in a sample of 112 African American adolescents. Statistical analyses compared a moderator model to a mediational model and a cumulative risk model. As predicted, the moderator model was superior to the alternative models. Specifically, whereas the mediational model predicted that the effect of father absence and the mother-child relationship upon adolescent problem behavior would be mediated by peer problem behavior, neither effected peer problem behavior or adolescent problem behavior. Similarly, a cumulative risk index did not predict either child or parent reports of problem behavior and was not sensitive to specific contingencies that existed between the predictor variables. In contrast, an interactive, moderator model described the data quite well. This model suggested that father or equivalent absence magnifies the negative impact of peer problem behavior, while a positive mother-adolescent relationship attenuates this risk. A strong mother-adolescent relationship also served to protect adolescents in father-absent homes from the risk of peer problem behavior. This research was supported by a grant (NICHHD: HD24056) awarded to A. M. Cauce. The authors thank Nydia Ordonez, Tanya Aguilar, and Laurie Deppman for their assistance on the project, and Cliff Lunneberg for suggestions regarding resampling procedures. Portions of this paper were presented at the meetings of the Western Psychological Association, April 1992.     

Shared focus in mother—child joint activity in the second year of life

Shared focus between mother and child during joint activity was examined. Ten dyads were observed at 16 and 20 months. We found that the level of conventionality expressed by shared focus increases with age. The activity becomes more oriented towards the cultural aspects of the objects than to material aspects, and social games become more oriented towards symbolic and linguistic aspects than to practical ones. Moreover, we found that the content of the game influences the function of the child's utterances both at 16 and at 20 months. These results point to the cultural specification of joint activity, which can be viewed as mediating the development of intersubjectivity as well as individual behaviour.     

Development of social problem‐solving strategies and changes in aggressive behavior: A 7‐year follow‐up from childhood to late adolescence

The aim of this study was to predict a stability of aggressive behavior on the basis of social problem‐solving strategies. Subjects were a total of 120 children, but complete follow‐up data were available only in 47 cases. Their aggressive behaviors were peer rated, and problem‐solving strategies were assessed in childhood subjects being 10 years on average, and 7 years later. Association between a development of social strategies and changes in aggressive behavior was studied with personality‐oriented pattern analyses. The main finding was that a development of strategies predicted a stability or changes of aggressive behavior very well. Aggressive strategies, both in childhood and in adolescence, as well as a lack of constructive alternatives characterized permanently aggressive subjects. Turning from nonaggressive to aggressive behavior was also explained by aggressive problem‐solving strategies, while a positive development, i.e., turning from childhood aggressive to adolescent nonaggressive behavior, was possible only if a person had never used aggressive strategies. Agreement between behavior and strategies was higher among girls. The findings supported a claim that intervention of aggressive behavior may be possible by modifying social strategies. Aggr. Behav. 25:269–279, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Strategic demonstration of problem solutions by groups: The effects of member preferences,confidence, and learning goals

Research indicates that groups perform best, and their members learn the most, when they solve problems with demonstrably correct solutions. These outcomes are often attributed to correct members demonstrating to incorrect members how to solve such problems. However, because few studies have directly observed group interaction (Moreland, Swanenburg, Flagg, & Fetterman, 2010), the extent to which correct members actually demonstrate problem solutions remains unclear. Assuming that groups are strategic and desire to solve problems both accurately and efficiently, we predicted that initially correct minorities would be more likely than initially correct majorities to demonstrate problem solutions. Results from two studies support this prediction, in the form of member behavioral intentions (Study 1) and observed group interaction processes (Study 2). Study 1 also highlights the role of confidence in this effect, while Study 2 reveals that demonstration is overall more likely when groups have a goal that encourages member learning.     

Influence of personal therapy on learning and development of psychotherapeutic skills

The aim of the present study was to investigate psychodynamic psychotherapists’ experience of the influence of personal therapy on professional growth during training with a focus on the acquisition of knowledge and the development of psychotherapeutic skills. Thematic analysis was conducted on interviews with former students (N=10) at two training institutes for psychoanalytic psychotherapy. The resulting theme “professional subjectivity” indicated that personal therapy was experienced as having a positive effect on learning and growth of professional skill by facilitating the development of a theory- and knowledge-based professional subjectivity, a personally founded, professional attitude. Important elements of this development are “shared experience,” “personal influence,” and “knowledge integration.” The emergence of professional subjectivity proved to be an important factor in terms of professional advancement for future psychotherapists. Finding and relating to their own subjectivity was crucial in the process of developing a personally founded, professional attitude in the clinical work.     

Alcohol-related knowledge and attitudes in people with a mild learning disability – the effects of a ‘sensible drinking’ group

Alcohol-related knowledge and attitudes in people with a mild learning disability, who were either living, or being prepared to live, in relatively independent conditions in the community, were assessed through a structured interview format. Compared with non-learning-disabled teenagers, adults and a hospitalized patient sample, alcohol-related knowledge in the people with a learning disability was found to be significantly poorer, alcohol was reported as having particularly negative effects and susceptibility to social pressure to drink alcohol was greater. A ‘sensible drinking’ group, taking a social skills and influences approach to alcohol education, was conducted with a subgroup of the individuals with a learning disability. The group format and methods, including in vivo sessions in a public house, are described. Follow-up evaluations suggested some significant positive changes in knowledge, attitudes and sensible drinking skills. It is concluded that this population, which is increasingly living, or being moved into, independent conditions in the community, is at least as vulnerable to social influences on alcohol use and abuse as are young people. As with young people, the usefulness of making available such alcohol-education programmes as described in this study, is discussed.     

The role of problem-solving appraisal in the process and outcome of career counseling

Because problem-solving appraisal has been demonstrated to be a critical variable in psychological adjustment, this study examined its potential role as both a static and dynamic client attribute influencing the process and outcome of career counseling. Participants were 151 adults who received an average of five sessions of naturally occurring career counseling; data were collected before, during, and after counseling. The results indicated that: (a) in line with a static attribute model, clients' pre-counseling problem-solving appraisal scores predicted post-counseling career and psychological outcomes as well as career decidedness even after partialling out clients' pre-decidedness scores; (b) in line with a dynamic attribute model, clients who experienced positive changes in problem-solving appraisal in counseling were more likely to have more positive career resources to use in their career transitions as well greater goal directedness; (c) participation in career counseling related to positive change in problem-solving appraisal scores at a level similar to problem-solving training workshops; and (d) clients' changes in problem-solving appraisal related to changes in the working alliance over time.     

How generative drawing affects the learning process: An eye‐tracking analysis

Generative drawing is a learning strategy in which students draw illustrations while reading a text to depict the content of the lesson. In two experiments, students were asked to generate drawings as they read a scientific text or read the same text on influenza with author‐provided illustrations (Experiment 1) or to generate drawings or write verbal summaries as they read (Experiment 2). An examination of students' eye movements during learning showed that students who engaged in generative drawing displayed more rereadings of words, higher proportion of fixations on the important words, higher rate of transitions between words and workspace, and higher proportion of transitions between important words and workspace than students given a text lesson with author‐generated illustrations (Experiment 1) or students who were asked to write a summary (Experiment 2). These findings contribute new evidence to guide theories for explaining how generative drawing affects learning processes.     

Social problem solving in early childhood: Developmental change and the influence of shyness

The purpose of this study was to examine developmental change and the influence of shyness on social problem-solving (SPS). At 24, 36, and 48 months, children (N = 570) were observed while interacting with an unfamiliar peer during an SPS task and at 24 months, maternal report of shyness was collected. Results showed that across the full sample, children displayed low but stable levels of withdrawn SPS and increasing levels of SPS competence over development. In addition, results showed multiple trajectories of withdrawn and competent SPS. Shyness was associated with high-increasing and high-decreasing withdrawn SPS trajectories compared with the low-increasing withdrawn SPS trajectory. Shyness was also associated with the low-increasing compared with the high-increasing SPS competence trajectory. Findings demonstrate the development of SPS competence over early childhood, and the influence of early shyness on this developmental course, with some shy children showing improvement in SPS skills and others continuing to show SPS difficulties over time.     

Social Competence and Eating Disorders: Development and Validation of the Anorexia and Bulimia Problem Inventory

Incompetence at solving interpersonal problems is a possible antecedent of anorexic and bulimic behaviors in college-age women. A role-play measure of interpersonal competence, the Anorexia and Bulimia Problem Inventory (ABPI), was developed empirically and then was tested in two validation studies. ABPI scores for two samples of college women were compared: a subclinical sample [extremely high scores on the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT)] and a control sample (extremely low EAT scores). Groups differed as predicted. The second study replicated and extended these findings. The ABPI scores of clinical, subclinical, and control samples of college women differed significantly. Bulimic bingers, purgers, and laxative users were least competent on the ABPI. A lack of group differences on the Helping Situations Inventory supported the ABPI's discriminant validity. A correlation between the ABPI and Beck Depression Inventory supported the ABPI's convergent validity. ABPI competence appears to be related to certain subtypes of eating disorders.     

Development of Social Problem Solving in Early Childhood: Stability,Change, and Associations With Social Competence

Kindergarten and 1st-grade boys were administered social cognitive interviews in 2 consecutive years to investigate the response-generation step of N. R. Crick and K. A. Dodge's (1994) social information processing model. Boys generated responses to 4 types of hypothetical social dilemmas. Responses to these situations were primarily prosocial, with a large minority of avoidant and antisocial solutions. In general, older boys provided more effective solutions than did their younger peers, and stabilities were modest but significant for subcategories of both prosocial and antisocial responses. Boys who were accepted by their peers provided more prosocial and effective solutions than did boys of lower peer status, but no status differences emerged for antisocial responses. The data also suggest that young children view aggression as an acceptable means to solving peer conflict.     

Strategies in Forecasting Outcomes in Ethical Decision-Making: Identifying and Analyzing the Causes of the Problem

This study examined the role of key causal analysis strategies in forecasting and ethical decision-making. Undergraduate participants took on the role of the key actor in several ethical problems and were asked to identify and analyze the causes, forecast potential outcomes, and make a decision about each problem. Time pressure and analytic mindset were manipulated while participants worked through these problems. The results indicated that forecast quality was associated with decision ethicality, and the identification of the critical causes of the problem was associated with both higher quality forecasts and higher ethicality of decisions. Neither time pressure nor analytic mindset impacted forecasts or ethicality of decisions. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Children’s incidental learning of the colors of objects and clothing

Few researchers have examined adults’ and children’s incidental recall of color information. In Experiment 1, we examined how well children recalled the colors of items seen in a first aid demonstration. Color recall of objects was above chance levels after three different time delays. However, recall of clothing color was poor. In Experiment 2, we examined whether colors of items from the same category (e.g., items of clothing) were more difficult to remember than distinct items (i.e., belonging to a range of different categories). Children and adults saw 18 items from three different categories. Color recall was above chance levels. The colors of distinct items were recalled more often than the color of category items. The results suggest that color is encoded automatically to some extent. However, participants had difficulty in recalling the color of clothing worn by the experimenter.