Shy children’s coping with a social conflict: The role of personality self-theories

Shy children’s risk for psychosocial difficulties may result partly from ineffective coping with social stressors. Little is known about which shy children are most susceptible to maladaptive coping styles. Personality self-theories may be one source of individual differences in shy children’s coping with social stressors. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the links between shyness and coping were moderated by personality self-theories. Participants were 175 children (M_age = 10.11 years), who completed self-report assessments of shyness, personality self-theories, and coping strategies. Self-theories moderated links between shyness and coping, sometimes differentially for boys and girls. For example, shyness was most strongly related to internalizing coping among entity-oriented children. However, shyness was most strongly negatively related to approach coping (social support, problem-solving) among incrementally-oriented boys and entity-oriented girls.     

Shyness: anxious social sensitivity and self-isolating tendency

Based on shyness self-rating, 96 students in grade 10 were divided into shy and non-shy groups to study commonalities and differences between the groups on various aspects of the shyness experience. The shy group had significantly more negative self-ratings on the following items: loneliness, interference of shyness with academic success and with developing friendships, shyness around the opposite sex, and belief in the noticeability of shyness reactions by others. There were no significant group differences in the levels of self-liking and being liked by others. Compared to the non-shy, the shy group reported more negative cognitive reactions during the shyness experience, such as loss of concentration, speech problems, self-consciousness, and self-punitive self-talk. In spite of the shy group's cognitive problems, both groups identified many similar shyness-inducing social situations and physiological and non-verbal reactions. These similarities and differences between the shy and the non-shy seemed to point to their different ways of processing the same shyness experience. A self-alienating tendency at three levels (cognitive, affective, and behavioral), and two phases (primary and secondary) of the shyness experience are discussed as possible contributing factors. Shy students appeared to regard normal shyness as an unacceptable and shameful experience. Implications for therapeutic intervention and future research are discussed, and a new definition is given.     

Implicit theories of shyness in American and Chinese children

This study examined whether implicit theories of shyness differed between American and Chinese children and how this difference helped explain cultural variations in stereotypical views about shy children and relationship with shy peers. We found that regardless of cultural group, children's implicit theories of shyness were not related to their own shyness, but were associated with stereotypical views about shy children (positively) and relationship with shy peers (negatively). American children reported stronger entity theories of shyness, i.e., they were more likely to view shyness as a stable and immutable trait than Chinese children, which partly explained why they had worse relationships with shy peers. These findings highlight the important roles implicit theories may play in understanding cultural similarities and differences in interpersonal perception and relationship.     

Implicit theories about groups and stereotyping: the role of group entitativity

The consequences of holding an entity (i.e., the belief that a group's characteristics are fixed) or incremental (i.e., the belief that a group's characteristics are malleable) implicit theory about groups was examined for stereotyping and perceptions of group entitativity. Two studies showed that implicit theories about groups affect stereotyping by changing perceptions of group entitativity. Study 1 found that entity theorists were more likely to stereotype than incremental theorists and that perception of group entitativity significantly accounted for this relation. In Study 2, implicit theories of groups were manipulated via instruction set and entity theorists stereotyped more and perceived groups as more entitative than incremental theorists. Again, the effect of implicit theory was significantly, although partially, mediated by perceptions of group entitativity. The roles of implicit theories about groups and perceptions of group entitativity are discussed regarding stereotyping.     

Implicit theories of emotion: affective and social outcomes across a major life transition

The authors demonstrate that people differ systematically in their implicit theories of emotion: Some view emotions as fixed (entity theorists), whereas others view emotions as more malleable (incremental theorists). Using a longitudinal and multimethod design, the authors show that implicit theories of emotion, as distinct from intelligence, are linked to both emotional and social adjustment during the transition to college. Before entering college, individuals who held entity (vs. incremental) theories of emotion had lower emotion regulation self-efficacy and made less use of cognitive reappraisal (Part 1). Throughout their first academic term, entity theorists of emotion had less favorable emotion experiences and received decreasing social support from their new friends, as evidenced by weekly diaries (Part 2). By the end of freshman year, entity theorists of emotion had lower well-being, greater depressive symptoms, and lower social adjustment as indicated in both self- and peer-reports (Part 3). The emotional, but not the social, outcomes were partially mediated by individual differences in emotion regulation self-efficacy (Part 4). Together, these studies demonstrate that implicit theories of emotion can have important long-term implications for socioemotional functioning.     

Voicing conflict: preferred conflict strategies among incremental and entity theorists

The way individuals choose to handle their feelings during interpersonal conflicts has important consequences for relationship outcomes. In this article, the authors predict and find evidence that people's implicit theory of personality is an important predictor of conflict behavior following a relationship transgression. Incremental theorists, who believe personality can change and improve, were likely to voice their displeasure with others openly and constructively during conflicts. Entity theorists, who believe personality is fundamentally fixed, were less likely to voice their dissatisfactions directly. These patterns were observed in both a retrospective study of conflict in dating relationships (Study 1) and a prospective study of daily conflict experiences (Study 2). Study 2 revealed that the divergence between incremental and entity theorists was increasingly pronounced as conflicts increased in severity: the higher the stakes the stronger the effect.     

The influence of shyness on children's test performance

Background: Research has shown that shy children differ from their peers not only in their use of language in routine social encounters but also in formal assessments of their language development, including psychometric tests of vocabulary. There has been little examination of factors contributing to these individual differences. Aims: To investigate cognitive‐competence and social anxiety interpretations of differences in children's performance on tests of vocabulary. To examine the performance of shy and less shy children under different conditions of test administration, individually with an examiner or among their peers within the familiar classroom setting. Sample: The sample consisted of 240 Year 5 pupils (122 male, 118 female) from 24 primary schools. Method: Shy and less shy children, identified by teacher nomination and checklist ratings, completed vocabulary and mental arithmetic tests in one of three conditions, in a between‐subjects design. The conditions varied individual and group administration, and oral and written responses. Results: The conditions of test administration influenced the vocabulary test performance of shy children. They performed significantly more poorly than their peers in the two face‐to‐face conditions but not in the group test condition. A comparable trend for the arithmetic test was not statistically significant. Across the sample as a whole, shyness correlated significantly with test scores. Conclusions: Shyness does influence children's cognitive test performance and its impact is larger when children are tested face‐to‐face rather than in a more anonymous group setting. The results are of significance for theories of shyness and have implications for the assessment of schoolchildren.     

Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: the case of shy behavior

Using the trait of shyness as an example, the authors showed that (a) it is possible to reliably assess individual differences in the implicitly measured self-concept of personality that (b) are not accessible through traditional explicit self-ratings and (c) increase significantly the prediction of spontaneous behavior in realistic social situations. A total of 139 participants were observed in a shyness-inducing laboratory situation, and they completed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) and explicit self-ratings of shyness. The IAT correlated moderately with the explicit self-ratings and uniquely predicted spontaneous (but not controlled) shy behavior, whereas the explicit ratings uniquely predicted controlled (but not spontaneous) shy behavior (double dissociation). The distinction between spontaneous and controlled behavior was validated in a 2nd study.     

Implicit negotiation beliefs and performance: experimental and longitudinal evidence

The authors argue that implicit negotiation beliefs, which speak to the expected malleability of negotiating ability, affect performance in dyadic negotiations. They expected negotiators who believe negotiating attributes are malleable (incremental theorists) to outperform negotiators who believe negotiating attributes are fixed (entity theorists). In Study 1, they gathered evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the implicit negotiation belief construct. In Study 2, they examined the impact of implicit beliefs on the achievement goals that negotiators pursue. In Study 3, they explored the causal role of implicit beliefs on negotiation performance by manipulating negotiators' implicit beliefs within dyads. They also identified perceived ability as a moderator of the link between implicit negotiation beliefs and performance. In Study 4, they measured negotiators' beliefs in a classroom setting and examined how these beliefs affected negotiation performance and overall performance in the course 15 weeks later. Across all performance measures, incremental theorists outperformed entity theorists. Consistent with the authors' hypotheses, incremental theorists captured more of the bargaining surplus and were more integrative than their entity theorist counterparts, suggesting implicit theories are important determinants of how negotiators perform. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

内隐人格理论对他人印象加工策略的影响

从表征状态与他人知觉信息加工方式两个角度探讨了内隐人格理论对他人印象加工策略的影响。首先采用自编的童话情境测验对120名被试的内隐人格理论进行维度分析, 甄选出持不同内隐人格理论的被试(实体论42人、渐变论48人)。随后使用错觉关联效应的实验范式, 要求两类被试(持不同内隐人格理论及其指向性情境)对他人行为信息进行判断, 记录自由回忆和频率估计的差异值。结果发现：持不同内隐人格理论的个体在知觉他人时采用不同的信息加工方式。实体论者通常采用启发式加工, 渐变论者通常采用分析式加工。实体论者在进行启发式加工时, 通过对他人行为信息的即时性判断形成他人印象; 渐变论者在进行分析式加工时, 对他人行为信息进行记忆性判断, 最终依赖情境信息形成他人印象。     

Capitalizing on brand personalities in advertising: The influence of implicit self‐theories on ad appeal effectiveness

How can firms use brand personalities to develop the most persuasive advertising appeals? In this article, we examine advertising appeals that capitalize on the signaling opportunities that using these brands can provide (signaling ad appeal) versus the self-improvement opportunities that using these brands can offer (self-improvement ad appeal). In two studies, we find that the effectiveness of these appeals depends on consumers' implicit self-theories. Specifically, signaling ad appeals are more effective for consumers who believe their personal qualities are fixed and cannot be developed through their own efforts (entity theorists), whereas self-improvement ad appeals are more effective for consumers who believe their personal qualities are malleable and can be developed (incremental theorists). Implications for brand personality research and advertising are discussed.     

羞怯与非羞怯大学生在早期面孔加工中的差异——来自ERP的电生理学证据

羞怯与社会认知密切相关,而面孔识别是人们社会生活中的一项重要的社会认知功能。目前关于羞怯的电生理学研究大多关注表情的效价效应和面孔的新旧效应对羞怯个体面孔加工的影响,却忽视了羞怯个体在基本的面孔识别能力——面孔-物体识别中可能存在的认知神经差异。因此,本研究采用ERP技术,使用GO/Nogo范式的面孔-物体识别任务,对17名羞怯大学生和17名非羞怯大学生在面孔结构编码中的N170成分进行考察,以期发现不同羞怯水平大学生在早期面孔加工中的认知神经差异。本研究发现,非羞怯大学生对面孔结构具有加工优势,识别面孔时,非羞怯大学生的N170波幅显著大于羞怯大学生的N170波幅,识别物体时则不存在组间差异;N170是面孔识别的特异性成分,面孔诱发的N170波幅显著大于物体诱发的N170波幅;识别面孔时,N170表现出大脑右半球的加工优势。     

Why do(n't) your partner's efforts at self-improvement make you happy? An implicit theories perspective

People often try to improve their interpersonal skills to satisfy romantic partners. However, when and why a partner appreciates these efforts is an important but underaddressed question. The present research explored how people's theories that interpersonal abilities are either fixed entities or can be changed incrementally affect their responses to relationship partner's efforts at self-improvement. Study 1 validated a new measure for these theories and showed that, compared to the former entity theorists, the latter incremental theorists were less likely to attribute recalled instances of partners' negative behaviors to dispositional causes and perceive these behaviors as fixed and stable. An experiment that induced these different implicit theories (Study 2) and a longitudinal study (Study 3) further demonstrated that perceptions of partners' self-improvement efforts led to greater increases in relationship security and quality among incremental than among entity theorists. How implicit theories may shape the interpersonal dynamics of self-improvement is discussed.     

I can do that: the impact of implicit theories on leadership role model effectiveness

This research investigates the role of implicit theories in influencing the effectiveness of successful role models in the leadership domain. Across two studies, the authors test the prediction that incremental theorists ("leaders are made") compared to entity theorists ("leaders are born") will respond more positively to being presented with a role model before undertaking a leadership task. In Study 1, measuring people's naturally occurring implicit theories of leadership, the authors showed that after being primed with a role model, incremental theorists reported greater leadership confidence and less anxious-depressed affect than entity theorists following the leadership task. In Study 2, the authors demonstrated the causal role of implicit theories by manipulating participants' theory of leadership ability. They replicated the findings from Study 1 and demonstrated that identification with the role model mediated the relationship between implicit theories and both confidence and affect. In addition, incremental theorists outperformed entity theorists on the leadership task.     

人们为什么会羞怯：认知机制及神经基础

羞怯指个体在社交情境下的抑制, 是个体参与社交的阻碍。近年来, 关于羞怯的认知神经科学研究增多, 学者基于元认知模型、社会适应模型、侧化脑-体情绪模型等理论, 探讨了大脑结构和功能以及几种与感知觉和注意相关的ERP成分与羞怯的关系。但当前关于羞怯认知神经科学的理论和实证研究尚处于起步阶段。基于上述提出羞怯的心理发展模型; 未来应从人格和情绪双角度研究羞怯, 并在开发研究范式的基础上, 加大羞怯认知神经机制的探讨。     

新时代青少年羞怯对同伴侵害的影响：依存型和独立型自我建构的作用

本研究的主要目的是考察羞怯对同伴侵害的影响及潜在机制。1036名青少年(52%是男孩; M = 12.97 岁, SD = .76)完成了自评问卷。结果发现：(1)羞怯显著地正向预测青少年的同伴侵害;(2)自我建构调节了这一关系,依存型自我建构对羞怯个体的同伴问题具有保护作用,而独立型自我建构具有破坏作用;(3)性别对这一关系的调节作用并不显著。这些发现强调了在羞怯的适应功能研究中考虑文化的个人层面因素的重要性。     

惩罚预期对羞怯个体注意偏向的影响

本研究采用点探测研究范式，通过三个实验研究探讨惩罚预期对羞怯个体注意偏向的影响。得出以下研究结论：（1）羞怯个体在惩罚预期条件下对消极情绪面孔存在注意偏向。（2）在短时间进程下，惩罚频率的改变没有影响羞怯个体的注意偏向。在长时间进程下，高惩罚频率更容易使羞怯个体逃避消极情绪面孔图片。（3）惩罚预期大更容易使羞怯个体有回避消极情绪面孔的倾向。     

幼儿害羞与社会适应:母亲教养方式的调节作用

本研究以487名幼儿为被试,探讨害羞与社会适应的关系,以及母亲教养方式在害羞与社会适应之间的调节作用。幼儿母亲完成儿童社会偏好量表和教养方式问卷,幼儿教师完成对幼儿社会适应的评价。结果表明:(1)害羞与不合群和同伴排斥显著正相关;(2)母亲教养方式在害羞与社会适应之间具有调节作用。具体来说,母亲温暖、说理和鼓励自主的教养方式可减弱害羞幼儿的消极适应,而体罚和指令型的教养方式会加剧害羞幼儿的消极适应。研究结果对于害羞幼儿的干预具有重要价值。     

Shyness: relationship to social phobia and other psychiatric disorders

The relationship between shyness, social phobia and other psychiatric disorders was examined. The prevalence of social phobia was significantly higher among shy persons (18%) compared with non-shy persons (3%). However, the majority of shy individuals (82%) were not socially phobic. A significant and positive correlation was found between the severity of shyness and the presence of social phobia, but the data suggest that social phobia is not merely severe shyness. Social phobia was also positively and moderately correlated with introversion and neuroticism. Thus, shy persons with social phobia were shyer, more introverted, and more neurotic than other shy people, but none of these factors was sufficient to distinguish shy persons with social phobia from those without social phobia. The proportion of the shy group with psychiatric diagnoses other than social phobia was significantly higher than among the non-shy group, indicating that various diagnostic categories are prominent among the shy. The results are discussed in terms of the overlap in shyness and social phobia and the relationship of shyness to other psychiatric diagnoses and personality dimensions.     

The effect of implicit person theory on performance appraisals

Four studies examined whether implicit person theory (IPT) regarding the malleability of personal attributes (e.g., personality and ability) affects managers' acknowledgment of change in employee behavior. The extent to which managers held an incremental IPT was positively related to their recognition of both good (Study 1) and poor (Study 2) performance, relative to the employee behavior they initially observed. Incremental theorists' judgments were not anchored by their prior impressions (Study 3). In the 4th study, entity theorists who were randomly assigned to a self-persuasion training condition developed a significantly more incremental IPT. This change in IPT was maintained over a 6-week period and led to greater acknowledgment of an improvement in employee performance than was exhibited by entity theorists in the placebo control group.