Maternal and Infant Temperament Characteristics as Contributors to Parenting Stress in the First Year Postpartum

Although prominent models emphasize that maternal, child, and situational variables are associated with parenting stress, previous research has often neglected to examine associations between maternal and infant temperament characteristics and stress experienced in the parenting role. Additionally, while predictors of global parenting stress have been examined, predictors of stress related to specific aspects of the parenting role have been largely unexplored. The present study examined maternal and infant temperament characteristics as predictors of parenting stress, both globally and specifically. Mothers (n = 159) completed measures of depressive and anxiety symptoms and a measure of adult temperament when their infants were 4 months old. At 6 months postpartum, caregivers completed a measure of infant temperament, and at 8 months postpartum, a measure of parenting stress. Results indicated that maternal effortful control and infant negative emotionality predicted global maternal parenting stress. Additionally, all maternal and infant temperament variables, with the exception of maternal negative affectivity and infant surgency/extraversion, were uniquely predictive of at least one specific aspect of parenting‐related stress. Findings emphasize the importance of considering maternal and infant temperament characteristics as contributors to parenting stress in the first year postpartum. Implications of these findings for future research and intervention are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Infant's psychophysiological profile and temperament at 3 and 12 months

This study is intended to analyze (1) differences in infant temperament at 3 and 12 months according to infants’ psychophysiological profiles: “withdrawn” “extroverted”, and “underaroused” and (2) changes in infant temperament from 3 to 12 months, namely according to the infant psychophysiological profile and the quality of mother-infant interaction. Ninety-four 8-week-old infants were assessed using the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS, Brazelton & Nugent, 1995) and the Alarm Distress Baby Scale (ADBB, Guedeney & Fermanian, 2001). Saliva samples were collected at 8-12 weeks old, both before and after a routine inoculation for cortisol reactivity measurement. Mother-infant interaction was evaluated at 12-16 weeks, using the Global Rating Scales (GRS, Murray, Fiori-Cowley, Hooper, & Cooper, 1996). Mothers’ reports on infant temperament at 3 and 12 months were collected using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ, Rothbart, 1981). Significant differences in mothers’ perception of infant temperament were found at both 3 and 12 months in infants with distinct psychophysiological profiles. Stability was observed in most of the temperament's dimensions from 3 to 12 months old; still, there were changes in mothers’ perception of infant temperament in terms of level of distress, cuddliness, sadness and approach. Infant psychophysiological profile and mother-infant interaction both influence with the pattern of those changes. The results corroborate that infant's characteristics early in life as well as contextual factors influence with mothers’ perception of infant temperament and with changes across the 1st year of life.     

Convergence of multiple sources of information on infant individuality: neonatal behavior,infant behavior,and temperament reports

To shed light on the notion of enduring individual infant characteristics, convergence of three presumably interrelated measures of infant individuality was examined. Data collected included standardized behavioral assessments of the newborn (NBAS), maternal reports of infant temperament (at 3 and 9 months), and naturalistic observations of infant behavior at 1, 3, and 9 months. Infant temperament reports were significantly stable from 3 to 9 months; observed infant fussiness was significantly stable from 1 to 3 and 3 to 9 months; observed altertness/social responsiveness was not stable over time. Analyses of convergence of neonatal and infant behavior revealed that 9-month infant alertness/social responsiveness was significantly correlated with neonatal habituation. Similar analyses of neonatal behavior and reported temperament revealed that 3-month reported dullness was significantly correlated with neonatal habituation and range of state. At 9 months, temperament ratings of infant fussiness and unpredictability were significantly correlated with autonomic stability; fussiness was also significantly correlated with regulation of state. Finally, no significant relationships were observed between reported temperament and observed infant behavior. These results fail to support a simple notion of enduring individuality in infants over their first year of life.     

Infant sleep moderates the effect of infant temperament on maternal depressive symptoms,maternal sensitivity,and family functioning

Observed infant temperamental difficulty and infant sleep efficiency and sleep variability were examined as predictors of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and family functioning. Eight observations at 8-months postpartum were used to assess infant temperament, and actigraphy was used to measure infant sleep for 1-week at the time of the 8-month assessment. Structured clinical interviews were used to assess maternal depressive symptoms between 5 and 12 months postpartum and at 15 months postpartum, and observational assessments were used to assess maternal sensitivity and family functioning at 15 months postpartum. Variability in infant sleep moderated the effect of infant temperament on maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and family functioning. Infant temperament was positively associated with maternal depressive symptoms when variability in infant sleep efficiency was high, but not when variability in infant sleep efficiency was low. Likewise, infant temperament was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity and family functioning when variability in infant sleep efficiency was high, but not when variability in infant sleep efficiency was low. Results underscore the importance of infant sleep for maternal and family health.     

Early Temperament and Attachment Security with Mothers and Fathers as Predictors of Toddler Compliance and Noncompliance

This longitudinal study (n = 106) examined associations between temperament, attachment, and styles of compliance and noncompliance. Infant negative temperamental reactivity was reported by mothers at 3, 5 and 7 months. Infant attachment was assessed (Strange Situation) at 12 (mothers) and 14 months (fathers). Toddlers' styles of compliance/noncompliance were measured using two laboratory contexts (clean‐up/delay) at 20 months. Results indicated that temperament and attachment predicted toddler behaviour. Toddlers who were secure with mothers and low in temperamental negative reactivity showed more committed compliance than those who were insecure and low in negative reactivity or secure and high in negative reactivity. In addition, interactions revealed that relations between infant–mother attachment and defiance depended on infant–father attachment security, temperament and context. Findings highlight the differential and complex roles of temperament and attachment as potential precursors of later social competence. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predictions of developmental patterns during infancy: Assessments of children 0–1 years

The present study investigated how neonatal behavioural organization was related to later mental development during the first year of life. The study further investigated the relationship between early social affective behaviour and later mental development. A group of 40 infants was assessed five times during the infants' first year, at three and 14 days and at four, eight and 12 months. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale (NBAS), the Duve method (a clinically based method for observation of social affective behaviour), and Griffiths' Mental Development Scales were used to assess the development of the infants. The results indicate that early predictive behavioural components can be identified. Neonatal state control capacity was related to motor development at both eight and 12 months. Social responsitivity at four months was related to hearing and speech at eight as well as at 12 months. The NBAS dimensions were good predictors of eight months performance, but were poor predictors of 12 months performance.     

Infant temperament and performance on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 4, 8, and 12 months of age

Infants were assessed with the Rothbart Infant Behavior Questionnaire (an objective measure of infant temperament based on maternal reports) and the complete Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) at 4, 8, and 12 months of age. Activity level was related to BSID performance at each age with babies who obtained higher scores rated as more active. Activity level was also related to the infants' behavior during the test administration at 8 and 12 months. A negative relation was found between smiling and laughter and the mental development index at 8 and 12 months. These data suggest that aspects of infant temperament as assessed by maternal report share a small amount of variance with BSID performance and the amount of shared variance increases with age.     

Continuity of temperament from infancy to middle childhood

Continuity of temperament from 6 months (the IBQ) to 5.5 years (the CBQ) was explored in Finnish children (n = 231) within the theoretical framework deviced by Rothbart. Activity level, smiling and laughter, distress to limitations and fear showed significant differential homotypic and heterotypic continuity, while soothability and duration of orienting showed significant differential heterotypic continuity. On the level of latent superconstructs, infant positive and negative affectivity accounted for 4.6, 22.3, and 6.0% of the variance in childhood extraversion, effortful control and negative affectivity, respectively. Infant and childhood temperament clustered into profile types named “resilient”, “undercontrolled”, and “overcontrolled” mirroring ipsative continuity. These findings give empirical credence to Rothbart's theory by replicating and extending previous findings in significant ways.     

Robust patterns and individual variations: Stability and predictors of infant behavior in the still-face paradigm

In the present study we examined key issues regarding infant behavior in the still-face paradigm (SFP) in terms of individual variations, stability, and predictors. The sample consisted of 115 mothers and infants, with assessments at ages 3 and 6 months, including observations of maternal and infant behavior in the SFP, and parent reports of infant temperament. Both robust patterns and individual variations in infant SFP behaviors were found, with only a minority of infants showing the expected patterns for negative affect and gaze. Infant behavior patterns showed no stability from age 3 to 6 months, and infant gaze was related to more pronounced behavior changes across the SFP. Maternal sensitivity in the SFP baseline was related to some aspects of infant SFP behavior. Consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, in infants with a more difficult temperament maternal sensitivity predicted a more pronounced expected pattern of changes in infant positive affect across the SFP, whereas this was not the case for infants with a more easy temperament.     

Infant temperament and maternal sensitivity behavior in the first year of life

Maternal sensitivity behavior (MSB) and infant temperament were investigated among 56 Finnish low-risk mothers and their full-term and healthy infants. The mothers were from families with good economic status, the infant's parents lived together, and the mothers were well educated. Mothers and infants were video-recorded in free-play situations at home, and evaluated using the Parent-Child Early Relational Assessment Scale (PCERA). The infants were also assessed using the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire (R-ITQ) and the Toddler Temperament Questionnaire (TTQ). Most of the temperament characteristics showed moderate stability during the first year. MSB was related to infant temperament characteristics at 3, 6 and 12 months of age. Gender differences in temperament were evident already at 6 and 12 months of age. Few prior studies have reported gender differences in infancy.     

Cardiac physiological regulation across early infancy: The roles of infant surgency and parental involvement with mothers and fathers

High baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and infant temperament are associated with a child’s ability to self-regulate, but moderators of this association have not been thoroughly examined in the literature. Parents who are more involved might have more opportunities to interact with and soothe their children. The current study examined whether parental involvement moderated the association between infant temperament and baseline RSA with mothers and fathers across early infancy. Participants included families (n = 91) assessed at 4 and 8 months of age. Infant temperamental surgency and parental involvement were measured via parent-report when infants were 4 months old, and infant baseline RSA was measured at 4 and 8 months of age. Results revealed differences in mother versus father predictors of infant baseline RSA. A significant Infant Surgency X Maternal Play interaction was revealed; infants of mothers who were low involvement increased in their baseline RSA as their surgency increased. A significant main effect of father care was found; infants with highly involved fathers had higher baseline RSA. In conclusion, mothers and fathers may differentially influence their infant’s cardiac physiological regulation based on their specific type of involvement.     

Determinants of maternal self-esteem in the neonatal period

The purpose of this study was to determine whether maternal perceptions of infant health and behavior made a unique contribution in understanding maternal self-esteem beyond what could be achieved from objective measures. The Perception of Infant Health (POIH) questionnaire and the Bates ICQ captured the perception of infant health and temperament. Standard medical variables including the Hobel Medical Risk Summary measured the objective aspect of infant health. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment (NBAS) measured objective infant behavior. The Maternal Self-Report Inventory measured self-esteem. Eighty mother-infant dyads, which included healthy, middle socioeconomic class mothers of both full-term, neurologically normal and preterm infants with a range of medical problems were studied. Negative maternal perceptions of infant health and behavior as well as poorer objective health status were associated with decreased maternal self-esteem. Perceptual variables of temperament and health made a unique contribution to maternal self-esteem scores. Regression analysis indicated fussy/difficult, POIH, and NBAS autonomic scores explained a significant amount of variance in maternal self-esteem.     

Maternal pre‐ and postnatal anxiety and infant temperament. The generation R study

The aim of this study was to investigate whether maternal anxiety that is temporary or chronic during the pre‐ and postnatal period predicts infant temperament. Mothers of 2997 infants in a population‐based birth cohort reported levels of pregnancy‐specific anxiety (Pregnancy Outcome Questionnaire) and general anxiety symptoms (Brief Symptom Inventory) prenatal and at 6 months postnatal. Temperament characteristics were assessed by maternal report using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire—Revised when the infants were 6 months of age. Maternal pregnancy‐specific and general anxiety during the pre‐ and postnatal period were all independently associated with perceived infant temperamental difficulties. Chronically high maternal anxiety predicted the highest perceived infant activity level and negative affectivity. These findings show that different forms of maternal anxiety during both the pre‐ and postnatal period are independently related to perceived temperamental problems in infancy. They also emphasize the significance of chronic maternal anxiety for infant mental health. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Early manifestations of childhood depression: influences of infant temperament and parental depressive symptoms

In this longitudinal study, 83 parents of infants between 3 and 12 months completed questionnaires assessing demographic information, infant temperament, and maternal depression. When these children were at least 18 months of age, parents completed follow‐up questionnaires assessing toddler temperament and depression‐like symptoms. We were primarily interested in the contributions of infant temperament and maternal depression to toddler depressive problems, and the analytic strategy involved controlling for toddler temperament in order to isolate the influence of infancy characteristics. The findings indicated that lower levels of infant regulatory capacity and greater severity of maternal depression were predictive of toddler depression‐like symptoms. Moderator effects of infant temperament were also examined, with the negative affectivity * maternal depression interaction emerging as significant. Follow‐up analyses indicated that the risk for early manifestations of depression was attenuated for children with lower negative affectivity in infancy and parents who reported lower levels of their own depressive symptoms; conversely, children exhibiting higher infant negative emotionality had higher levels of depression‐like symptoms as toddlers, regardless of their parents' level of depression. The present findings further suggest that parental depressive symptoms need not be ‘clinically significant’ to predict toddler affective problems. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

More than meets the eye: The neural development of emotion face processing during infancy

This study explored the impact of infant temperament and maternal stress on the development of the infant medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) among sixteen 6-8-month-old infants. Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to measure activation of the infant mPFC in response to angry, happy, and sad faces. Infant temperament and dimensions of maternal stress were measured with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire and the Parenting Stress Index Respectively. Infants with high negative emotionality demonstrated increased mPFC activation in association with all emotion face conditions. Negative emotionality moderated the effect of total maternal stress on mPFC activation to angry and sad faces. Mother-infant dysfunctional interaction was related to increased mPFC activation associated with happy faces, supporting the “novelty hypothesis”, in which the mPFC responds more strongly to unique experiences. Therefore, this study provides additional evidence that infant temperament and the quality of the mother-infant relationship influence the development of the mPFC and how infants process emotions.     

The longitudinal associations between temperament and sleep during the first year of life

Temperament and sleep in infants are related but also distinct concepts. The longitudinal effects of temperament on sleep in infancy remain unclear, although this information is potentially important for the prevention and treatment of early sleep problems. We examined how various temperament features influence sleep development during the first year of life in a large birth cohort. This study comprised mother-infant dyads with complete longitudinal data on sleep, temperament and sociodemographic measurements at six and 12 months (N = 1436). We observed that higher infant Negative Affectivity was related to several sleep problems, and that many subscales of Negative Affectivity and Orienting/Regulation predicted worse sleep and deterioration in sleep problems from six to 12 months. Few associations between Surgency and sleep were found. Our findings highlight especially Negative Affectivity as a risk factor for persistent and increasing sleep problems, and also the specific importance of the fine-grained aspects of temperament in predicting infant sleep development.     

Maternal ratings of infant regulatory competence from 6 to 12 months: influence of perceived stress, birth-weight, and intervention: a randomized controlled trial

Mothers’ reports of preterm and term infants’ temperament from 6 to 12 months of age were studied, with intervention and stress as predictors. Preterm infants with a birth weight <2000 g were randomized to an intervention (71) or a control (69) group. A control group of healthy term infants (74) was also established. The intervention was a modified version of the “Mother–Infant Transaction Program”, aimed at sensitizing caregivers to the infants’ individual characteristics. Temperament was measured with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, and stress with the Parenting Stress Index. There were no group differences in temperament at 6 or 12 months or in change during the same period. There was a strong association between stress and negative reactivity in the preterm control group at 12 months. In the preterm intervention group, there were strong negative correlations between stress and regulatory competence at 6 months. The intervention seemed to change the relationship between stress and temperament. The strength of this association indicates that the intervention sensitized mothers to the temperamental regulatory competence of their preterm infants.     

Cross-cultural differences in temperament: Comparing paternal ratings of US and Dutch infants

This study conducted longitudinal comparisons of US and Dutch paternal ratings of temperament, measured via the Infant Behaviour Questionnaire-Revised, at 4 months (US n = 99; Dutch n = 127) and 12 months (US n = 66; Dutch n = 112) of age. US fathers rated their infant higher in the broad temperament trait Surgency, and its subscales vocal reactivity, high-intensity pleasure, and activity level. US fathers also rated their infants higher in negative emotionality, and its subscales of sadness, distress to limitations, and fear. Dutch infants received higher ratings in falling reactivity. Though the cultures did not differ in ratings of Orienting/regulatory capacity, US infants were higher on the subscale duration of orienting, and lower in soothability. Significant culture-by-age and culture-by-gender interactions were also noted. Overall, results are largely consistent with those reported for Dutch mothers and speak to considerable differences in early temperament development between cultures viewed as largely similar because of their Western/individualistic orientations.     

母亲敏感性与婴儿气质、注意对学步儿执行功能影响的交互作用：一项两年的追踪研究

为同时探究外部因素与内部因素对学步儿执行功能的影响, 对163对母婴进行追踪测量。婴儿6个月时根据母婴自由互动录像编码母亲敏感性; 使用最长注视时长范式测量婴儿注意特征; 使用母亲报告的《婴儿行为问卷—修订短版》测量婴儿气质; 24个月时使用多位置寻找任务、形状Stroop任务、逆转分类任务、延迟满足任务测量学步儿执行功能。结果发现：(1)婴儿6个月最长注视时长能够显著正向预测24个月的多位置寻找与延迟满足任务得分。(2)母亲敏感性能够正向预测气质外向性低的婴儿24个月时的逆转分类任务表现, 对气质外向性高的婴儿24个月时的逆转分类任务表现的预测不显著。(3)母亲敏感性能够正向预测最长注视时长更长的婴儿24个月时的形状Stroop任务得分; 负向预测最长注视时长更短的婴儿24个月时的形状Stroop任务得分。研究发现了针对不同特征的婴儿, 母亲的养育敏感性对学步儿执行功能影响的差异, 这对早期教育应该如何“因材施教”有所启示。