The requirements of truth and of justification of premisses

Summary The article attempts to give an answer to the question: why for the acceptance of a statementz ₂ implied by another,z ₁, it is required not only thatz ₁ be true but also justified? The application in a given case of the rule allowing to accept a statement implied by another true one is not possible without establishing in an appropriate manner that the statement is true. Practically, therefore, we have to rely in the conditions for the acceptance of a statementz ₂ implied by anotherz ₁ on the manner of acceptance ofz ₁. If we require that this manner of acceptance should guarantee the truth ofz ₁, no special requirement of the truth ofz ₁ is necessary. If the acceptance ofz ₂ implied byz ₁ depends onz ₁ being accepted in a manner which does not ensure the truth ofz ₁ (e. g. by induction), then we have to give up the requirement of the truth ofz ₁. At most, we may prohibit the acceptance ofz ₂ implied byz ₁, inductively justified, if the evidence for the negation ofz ₁ is better than the inductive one forz ₁.     

Goodness of fit of trend curves and significance of trend differences

Experimental studies of the successive changes (frequently represented by curves describing laws of learning and other similar functional relationships) in a criterion variable accompanying experimental variations in a given treatment, and experimental comparisons of such changes for different populations or for different treatments, constitute a large and important class of psychological experiments. In most such experiments, no attempt has been made to analyze or to make allowance for errors of sampling or of observation. In many others, the techniques of error analysis that have been employed have been inefficient, inexact, or inappropriate. This paper suggests tests, using the methods of analysis of variance, of certain hypotheses concerning trends and trend differences in sample means obtained in experiments of this general type. For means of successive independent samples, tests are provided of the hypotheses: (H ₁) that there is no trend, or that the trend is a horizontal straight line, (H ₃) that there is a linear trend, (H ₅) that the trend is as described by a line not derived from the observed means, and (H ₇) that the trend is as described by a line fitted to the observed means. Tests are also provided of similar hypotheses (H ₂,H ₄,H ₆, andH ₈, respectively) for means of successive measurements of the same sample. Finally, tests are provided of the null hypotheses that there is no difference in trend in two series of means: (H ₉) when each mean in each series is based on an independent sample, (H ₁₀) when each pair of corresponding means is based on an independent sample, (H ₁₁) when each series of means is based on an independent sample, and (H ₁₂) when both series are based on a single sample.     

Efficiency of multiple-choice tests as a function of spread of item difficulties

The validity of a univocal multiple-choice test is determined for varying distributions of item difficulty and varying degrees of item precision. Validity is a function of _d ² + _v ² , where _d measures item unreliability and _v measures the spread of item difficulties. When this variance is very small, validity is high for one optimum cutting score, but the test gives relatively little valid information for other cutting scores. As this variance increases, eta increases up to a certain point, and then begins to decrease. Screening validity at the optimum cutting score declines as this variance increases, but the test becomes much more flexible, maintaining the same validity for a wide range of cutting scores. For items of the type ordinarily used in psychological tests, the test with uniform item difficulty gives greater over-all validity, and superior validity for most cutting scores, compared to a test with a range of item difficulties. When a multiple-choice test is intended to reject the poorestF per cent of the men tested, items should on the average be located at or above the threshold for men whose true ability is at theFth percentile.This research was performed under contract Nop 536 with the Bureau of Naval Personnel, and received additional support from the Bureau of Research and Service, College of Education, University of Illinois.     

A re-analysis of a test of the theory of two factors

The study of William Brown and William Stephenson, A Test of the Theory of Two Factors, is re-analyzed by means of the Thurstone multiple factor methods. No tests or correlations are left out of the original table of correlations as is done in the original analysis in an attempt to validate the two-factor theory. Space, verbal, and perceptual speed factors similar to those found by Thurstone, Wright, and Garrett are identified. A common factor of Maturation is postulated to account for the remaining communality of the tests. A fifth factor is considered to have no significance due to the small amount of variance which it contributes to the total.Master's Thesis, University of Chicago, Department of Psychology, 1939.     

Excitation of a chain of neurones

When the first of a uniform chain of neurones is excited with a stimulus intensityS ₁, it is found that, according to the nature of the chain,either the excitation is always transmitted with decreasing intensity,or else the intensity for succeeding neurones of the chain approaches a fixed finite value, characteristic of the chain and independent ofS ₁, wheneverS ₁ exceeds a certain threshold value.     

Quality of Life of HIV-Infected People Across Different Stages of Infection

Quality of life is an important component in the evaluation of the well-being of HIV-infected patients. In the present study, an attempt has been made to compare HIV-infected patients across the three stages namely, asymptomatic, symptomatic, and AIDS-related conditions. This is a cross-sectional study. For this study, a total number of 90 subjects, 30 each in asymptomatic, symptomatic, and AIDS-related conditions, were taken. The study population consisted of HIV positive individual already enrolled in Voluntary Counseling and Testing Center, Institute of Medical Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. The WHOQOL-HIV BREF was used to assess quality of life across the group of patients. One-way analysis of variance was performed to find out significant difference between the clinical categories. On average AIDS patients experienced significantly poorer quality of life in all the six domains, namely physical (M = 7.87, SD = 1.83), psychological (M = 8.50, SD = 1.54), level of independence (M = 8.57, SD = 1.59), social relation (M = 9.17, SD = 2.59), environment (M = 8.78, SD = 1.50), and spirituality/religion/personal belief (M = 6.93, SD = 1.26) to symptomatic and asymptomatic HIV-infected people (p = .000). Result suggested that there is an inverse relationship between quality of life and different stages of HIV infection.     

Psychometric evaluation of the inventory of dimensions of emerging adulthood (IDEA) in China

Background/ObjectiveEmerging adulthood (EA, age range between 18 to 29 years) is an important developmental stage that is characterized by marked social and psychological changes. Currently, its developmental features are quantified by the Inventory of the Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA) but a validated Chinese version of this questionnaire (IDEA-C) is lacking. Thus, this research, which consists of two consecutive studies, aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the translated IDEA in a Chinese sample of emerging adults.MethodFirstly, a forward-backward translation of the IDEA-C scale was conducted. Item analysis and exploratory factor analysis were performed in Sample 1a (n = 2438), followed by structural validity test in Sample 1b (n = 2461). Concurrent validity and internal consistency were evaluated in Sample 1(n = 4899). Finally, test-retest reliability was tested in Sample 2 (n = 185). Then, the second study aimed to test the factor structure proposed by study 1 in the non-student sample (n = 2200) by confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, the second study also investigated whether the attainment of college education influenced the EA experience of non-student emerging adults in China. And the association was examined between the socioeconomic status of emerging adults and the subscales of IDEA.ResultsIn the college sample, the IDEA-C scale presented a four-factor structure different from the original five-factor structure (χ2(190)=1116.84, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.96; SRMR = 0.039; RMSEA = 0.050 [90%CI=0.047-0.052]). In addition, IDEA-C exhibited good internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha >0.77), test-retest reliability (r>0.49, p < 0.01) and concurrent validity. And the CFA in non-student sample also showed an adequate fit indices (χ2(158) =710.10, p < 0.001, TLI=0.93, CFI=0.94, SRMR=0.038, RMSEA=0.04 [90%CI=0.037-0.040]) and an adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha >0.64) and test-retest reliability (r>0.43, p < 0.01).ConclusionThe results of the present study confirmed that the Chinese version of the IDEA is found to be valid for measuring psychological characteristics of EA in Chinese-speaking samples of emerging adults.     

《恒先》义释——思想史视野下的一种解读

Hengxian, one of the bamboo books of the Chu State during the Warring States Period that is kept in the Shanghai Museum, was collected by the museum in 1994, and is an important piece of literature that discusses cosmic issues prior to Huainanzi. Based on Li Ling’s work on the text, as well as hermeneutic work by some other scholars, this essay represents another attempt to determine the words and meanings of the Hengxian, with a focus on its cosmological commentary. Translated by Huang Deyuan from Xi’an Jianzhu Keji Daxue Xuebao 西安建筑科技大学学报 (Journal of Xi’an University of Arch & Tech), 2007, (1): 1–8     

Maximal Subalgebras of MVn-algebras. A Proof of a Conjecture of A. Monteiro

For each integer n ≥ 2, MV_n denotes the variety of MV-algebras generated by the MV-chain with n elements. Algebras in MV_n are represented as continuous functions from a Boolean space into a n-element chain equipped with the discrete topology. Using these representations, maximal subalgebras of algebras in MV_n are characterized, and it is shown that proper subalgebras are intersection of maximal subalgebras. When A ∈ MV₃, the mentioned characterization of maximal subalgebras of A can be given in terms of prime filters of the underlying lattice of A, in the form that was conjectured by A. Monteiro. Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 06D30, 06D35, 03G20, 03B50, 08A30. Presented by Daniele Mundici     

Proceedings of the American Psychological Association for the legislative year 2007: minutes of the annual meeting of the Council of Representatives and minutes of the meetings of the Board of Directors

Provides the minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives February 16-18, 2007, Washington, DC, and August 9 and 13, 2007, San Francisco, CA, and minutes of the February, June, August, and December 2007 meetings of the Board of Directors. These minutes are the official record of the actions of the American Psychological Association taken during the year by both the Board of Directors (the Board) and the Council of Representatives (Council). The main topical headings are I. Minutes of Meetings; II. Elections, Awards, Membership, and Human Resources; III. Ethics; IV. Board of Directors; V. Divisions and State, Provincial, and Territorial Psychological Associations; VI. Organization of the APA; VII. Publications and Communications; VIII. Convention Affairs; IX. Educational Affairs; X. Professional Affairs; XI. Scientific Affairs; XII. Public Interest; XIII. Ethnic Minority Affairs; XIV. International Affairs; XV. Central Office; and XVI. Financial Affairs.     

Minor Studies of Aggression: V. Strength of Frustration-Reaction as a Function of Strength of Drive

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of two methods of presenting visualized instruction to Ss and to determine the effectiveness of different types of visuals in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives. Five hundred twenty Ss participated in the study; each received a pretest, participated in his respective instructional presentation, and received four criterial tests. Analysis indicated that (a) the method of presenting visualized instruction determines the type of visualization most effective in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives; (b) for facilitating S achievement of certain objectives, color in visuals is an important instructional variable; and (c) not all visuals are equally effective in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives.     

Prediction of postural risk of fall initiation based on a two-variable description of body dynamics: Position and velocity of center of mass

This research addresses the question: what is the risk of fall initiation at a certain human posture? There are postures from which no one is able to keep their balance and a fall will surely initiate (risk = 1), and others from which everyone may regain their stability (risk = 0). In other postures, only a portion of people can control their stability. One may interpret risk to chance of a fall to be initiated, and based on the portion of fallers assign a risk value to a given human posture (postural risk). Human posture can be mapped to a point in a 2-dimensional space: the x − v plane, the axes of which are horizontal components of the position and velocity of the center of mass of the body. For every pair of (x, v), the outcome of the balance recovery problem defines whether a person with a given strength level is able to regain their stability when released from a posture corresponding to that point. Using strength distribution data, we estimated the portion of the population who will initiate a fall if starting at a certain posture. A fast calculation approach is also introduced to replace the time-consuming method of solving the recovery problem many times. Postural risk of fall initiation for situations expressed by (x, v) pairs for the entire x − v plane is calculated and shown in a color-map.     

On Pedagogy of Personality Assessment: Application of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

In this article, Bloom's (1956 Bloom, B. (Ed.), Englehart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., &; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1. Cognitive domain. White Plains, NY: Longman. [Google Scholar]) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, a pedagogical tool that can help instructors of personality assessment to develop effective and student-centered instructional design, is discussed. Bloom's taxonomy provides a progressive sequence of educational objectives used for lesson planning, needs assessment, and measurement of learning outcomes. The taxonomy comprises 6 categories of objectives that are ordered hierarchically, from the simplest to the most advanced. The levels are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. I explain how the taxonomy can be applied to the teaching of personality assessment and discuss the implications for assessment pedagogy. I provide examples of effective instructional activities, overview the signs of learners at each level, and highlight typical errors that students make in their oral and written work. Strategies to help learners progress to higher order thinking are also addressed.     

Estimation of the reliability of ratings

A procedure for estimating the reliability of sets of ratings, test scores, or other measures is described and illustrated. This procedure, based upon analysis of variance, may be applied both in the special case where a complete set of ratings from each ofk sources is available for each ofn subjects, and in the general case wherek ₁,k ₂, ...,k _n ratings are available for each of then subjects. It may be used to obtain either a unique estimate or a confidence interval for the reliability of either the component ratings or their averages. The relations of this procedure to others intended to serve the same purpose are considered algebraically and illustrated numerically.The writer wishes to acknowledge the helpful comments and suggestions of Professors E. E. Cureton, Harold Gulliksen, and E. F. Lindquist.     

Functional Anatomy of the Null Hypothesis and of Tests of It

The author compared simulations of the “true” null hypothesis (z) test, in which ò was known and fixed, with the t test, in which s, an estimate of ò, was calculated from the sample because the t test was used to emulate the “true” test. The true null hypothesis test bears exclusively on calculating the probability that a sample distance (mean) is larger than a specified value. The results showed that the value of t was sensitive to sampling fluctuations in both distance and standard error. Large values of t reflect small standard errors when n is small. The value of t achieves sensitivity primarily to distance only when the sample sizes are large. One cannot make a definitive statement about the probability or “significance” of a distance solely on the basis of the value of t.     

Products of Classes of Residuated Structures

The central result of this paper provides a simple equational basis for the join, IRLLG, of the variety LG of lattice-ordered groups (-groups) and the variety IRL of integral residuated lattices. It follows from known facts in universal algebra that IRLLG=IRL×LG. In the process of deriving our result, we will obtain simple axiomatic bases for other products of classes of residuated structures, including the class IRL×_s LG, consisting of all semi-direct products of members of IRL by members of LG. We conclude the paper by presenting a general method for constructing such semi-direct products, including wreath products.     

An empirical study of the effect of heterogeneous within-groups variance upon certainF-tests of significance in analysis of variance

In the application of the analysis of variance to data obtained in educational methods experiments which involve several classes of several schools, one assumption is that of homogeneity in the variances of pupil scores from school to school. It is shown that such variances on representative educational achievement tests are heterogeneous. The effects of this heterogeneity upon theF-tests of significance commonly employed in methods experiments are investigated by comparing the actual distribution ofF values for a large number of experiments involving marked heterogeneity with a theoretical distribution based on the assumption of homogeneity. Although the findings, which vary somewhat with the type of variance ratio, are not entirely conclusive, they apparently demonstrate that departure from homogeneity does not invalidate the use of the customaryF-tests for evaluating results of the typical methods experiment.     

The Class of Extensions of Nelson's Paraconsistent Logic

The article is devoted to the systematic study of the lattice εN4_⊥ consisting of logics extending N4_⊥. The logic N4_⊥ is obtained from paraconsistent Nelson logic N4 by adding the new constant ⊥ and axioms ⊥ → p, p → ∼ ⊥. We study interrelations between εN4_⊥ and the lattice of superintuitionistic logics. Distinguish in εN4_⊥ basic subclasses of explosive logics, normal logics, logics of general form and study how they are relate. The author acknowledges support by the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung and by Counsil for Grants under RF President, project NSh - 2112.2003.1.     

Reliability of a Longitudinal Sequence of Scale Ratings

Reliability captures the influence of error on a measurement and, in the classical setting, is defined as one minus the ratio of the error variance to the total variance. Laenen, Alonso, and Molenberghs (Psychometrika 73:443–448, 2007) proposed an axiomatic definition of reliability and introduced the R _T coefficient, a measure of reliability extending the classical approach to a more general longitudinal scenario. The R _T coefficient can be interpreted as the average reliability over different time points and can also be calculated for each time point separately. In this paper, we introduce a new and complementary measure, the so-called R _Λ , which implies a new way of thinking about reliability. In a longitudinal context, each measurement brings additional knowledge and leads to more reliable information. The R _Λ captures this intuitive idea and expresses the reliability of the entire longitudinal sequence, in contrast to an average or occasion-specific measure. We study the measure’s properties using both theoretical arguments and simulations, establish its connections with previous proposals, and elucidate its performance in a real case study. The authors are grateful to J&J PRD for kind permission to use their data. We gratefully acknowledge support from Belgian IUAP/PAI network “Statistical Techniques and Modeling for Complex Substantive Questions with Complex Data.”