Women Who Objectify Other Women: The Vicious Circle of Objectification?

This study was designed to test the extent to which women who self-objectify also objectify other women. One hundred thirty-two university students and their friends (64 women and 68 men) completed three questionnaires: (1) Noll and Fredrickson’s (1998) Self-Objectification Questionnaire, (2) a modified version of that questionnaire that measured individuals’ objectification of others, and (3) Slade, Dewey, Newton, and Brodie’s (1990) Body Cathexis scale. Women were more likely than men to self-objectify. Self-objectification was negatively related to body satisfaction for women but not for men. Both women and men objectified women more than they objectified men, although women’s objectification of other women was not significantly different than their objectification of men. Men objectified women more than women did, and women objectified men more than men did. Women were more likely to objectify other women than to objectify themselves. Higher self-objectification among both women and men was related to increased objectification of other women and men, but the relationships were stronger for women. Results indicate that women also objectify women, although not to the degree exhibited by men.     

The Division of Labor Among Egalitarian and Traditional Women: Differences in Discontent, Social Comparison, and False Consensus

We compared 118 egalitarian women (subscribers to the Dutch feminist magazine Opzij ) with 118 traditional women (subscribers to the widely read Dutch women's magazine Margriet ). On average, egalitarian women had a more equal division of household labor at home than did traditional women but experienced more discontent about the division of labor in their relationship. Egalitarian women with an unequal division of labor experienced more discontent than did traditional women with an unequal division of labor. Relative to traditional women, egalitarian women more often compared their own contribution to housework with their partner's contribution (relational comparison) and with other women's division of labor (referential comparison). Compared to traditional women, egalitarian women gave higher prevalence estimates of both the percentage of Dutch women doing virtually all housework and the percentage of women unhappy with the division of labor.     

The roles of sociosexual orientation and relationship status in women’s face preferences

Previous research suggests that sociosexual orientation and relationship status each predict women’s preferences for masculine men. However, if partnered women’s preferences primarily reflect the short-term (i.e., currently unfulfilled) aspect of a pluralistic mating strategy and unpartnered women’s preferences reflect the dominant aspect of their current mating strategy, then sociosexual orientation should predict the preferences of unpartnered women better than those of partnered women. Perceptions of other women’s attractiveness may show a similar pattern of individual differences, if such perceptions of other women’s attractiveness are important for intra-sexual competitive behavior. Consistent with these predictions, in the current study, analyses of the relationship between women’s face preferences and sociosexual orientation indicated that unpartnered women reporting greater willingness to engage in uncommitted relationships demonstrated stronger preferences for exaggerated sex-typical characteristics in men’s and women’s faces. For partnered women, no corresponding relationship between sociosexual orientation and face preferences was evident. Collectively, these findings suggest that individual differences in sociosexual orientation may be better predictors of face preferences among unpartnered women than among women whose long-term relationship goals are currently being met.     

The Importance of Knowing your History: Perceiving Past Women as less Agentic than Contemporary Women Predicts Impaired Quantitative Performance

Research on dynamic stereotypes of women has shown that women perceive large differences between contemporary women and women who lived in the past in terms of agentic (or masculine) traits. This temporal discrepancy in agentic attributes of women may suggest that agency is not a stable trait of women and may result in impaired performance in domains associated with agency, such as quantitative reasoning. We propose that women who think that agency has always characterized their gender group would perform better in quantitative tasks. Indeed, we found that as the difference between agency attributed to present and past women decreased, U.S. college women’s (n?=?80) accuracy in a quantitative test increased (Study 1). Further, reading a text about women’s achievements in the history of science reduced the discrepancy between agency attributed to past and present women and had an indirect positive effect on quantitative performance by 150 U.S. college women (Study 2). Findings suggest that women’s participation and performance in science could be improved by raising awareness of women’s historical achievements in male-dominated areas.     

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN AND CONSERVATISM

Although one goal of the psychology of women has been to enhance the status of women through social change, this goal has seldom been realized. Theory and research in the psychology of women have focused on gender differences and the personality of women rather than the society that oppresses women. As a result, this research has tended to blame women for their position in society and helped maintain the status quo, which can inhibit the struggle for equality by the women's movement. This process is demonstrated with reference to research on women and achievement. The causes and consequences of the focus on gender differences are discussed and recommendations made for a psychology of women in the service of women.     

Body Covering and Body Image: A Comparison of Veiled and Unveiled Muslim Women,Christian Women,and Atheist Women Regarding Body Checking,Body Dissatisfaction,and Eating Disorder Symptoms

Although Islam is the fastest growing religion worldwide, only few studies have investigated body image in Muslim women, and no study has investigated body checking. Therefore, the present study examined whether body image, body checking, and disordered eating differ between veiled and unveiled Muslim women, Christian women, and atheist women. While the groups did not differ regarding body dissatisfaction, unveiled Muslim women reported more checking than veiled Muslim and Christian women, and higher bulimia scores than Christian. Thus, prevention against eating disorders should integrate all women, irrespective of religious affiliation or veiling, with a particular focus on unveiled Muslim women.     

Stimulus Determinants of Aggregative Behavior in the Domestic Chicken

Identity status and self-esteem were determined for 88 undergraduate college women. Identity status was measured two ways: with the sexual values questions included, and with the ORP (occupational goals, religious ideology, and political ideology) interview alone. Significant differences in self-esteem as measured by the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI) were found for women in the four identity statuses. These differences were significant on the basis of both methods of identity assessment. Achievement women scored higher than Moratorium and Diffusion women, but not Foreclosure women. Moratorium women had the lowest self-esteem in the sample. Results were discussed as supportive of the notion that achievement of identity is enhancing of self-esteem in women, and that nontraditional areas of identity development are becoming more important determiners of adjustment in women. The differential adaptability of Moratorium and Foreclosure statuses for women was discussed.     

Success and Failure, Gender Differences, and the Menstrual Cycle

Eighty-one women and 26 men were led to succeed or fail at a task. No differences in actual performance were found between men and women or among women in different menstrual phases. Although they had participated alone, women felt worse, less competent, and less "up" than men after both success and failure. After success women also felt less satisfied, felt they had made lower scores, expected to perform worse, and rewarded themselves less than men. After success, women who were menstruating at the time of the experiment reported feeling better than women in other menstrual phases on most measures. A possible explanation was that menstruating women may have expected to perform poorly.     

Effect of Gender-Role Orientation of Primiparous Mothers on Their Cognitive Appraisals,Coping Strategies,and Mood Postpartum

Cognitive appraisals of mothering as a challenge and threat, coping strategies, affect balance, and depression were studied in 91 married gender-typed, cross-gender typed, and androgynous primiparous middle-class Israeli mothers of infants aged 3–5 months. The results indicated that gender-typed and androgynous women had significantly higher challenge scores and lower threat scores than did cross-gender typed women. With regard to coping strategies, gender-typed and androgynous women used more support-seeking than did cross-gender typed women. Gender-typed women also used less problem-focused strategy and more emotion-focused strategy than did cross-gender typed women. Gender-typed and androgynous women manifested more positive affect balance and less depression than did the cross-gender typed women.     

Magazine exposure,tanned women stereotypes,and tanning attitudes

This study investigated whether magazine exposure is related to stereotypical beliefs about tanned women. A survey of White college women (n = 205) assessed their exposure to beauty/fashion and health/fitness magazines. Outcome variables were the beliefs that tanned women are fashionable, fit, and shallow. Attention to the tanned women's images in health magazines positively predicted the belief that tanned women are fit and that tanned women are shallow; in contrast, attention to the images in beauty magazine negatively predicted the belief that tanned women are fit. Number of beauty magazines women read negatively predicted the belief that tanned women are shallow. The belief that tanned women are fit was unrelated, but the belief that tanned women are shallow was negatively related, with tanning attitudes.     

Self-Concept of Single Women

Written questionnaires including a 70-item adjective checklist, a value sort, the "Who Am I?" Twenty Statements Test, measures of morale, and questions about attitudes toward marriage and demographic characteristics were administered to samples of 66 childless, never-married women and 37 currently married women, 29 of whom had children. The purpose was to explore the differences and similarities in the self-concepts of single and married women. There was little difference in morale between the groups. Single women had more psychiatric symptoms characteristic of the obsessive-compulsive personality type. Although the single women valued personal growth and achievement, the married women valued personal relationships. Single women were higher on assertion and poise clusters of adjectives. On the "Who Am I?" test, the married women were more likely to identify with ascribed characteristics, kinship roles, and household activities, whereas the single women identified as self-determined.     

MEN,WOMEN, AND MANAGERS: ARE STEREOTYPES FINALLY CHANGING?

As the number of women in management roles increases and organizations place a greater emphasis on diversity, a subsequent change in perceptions of women as leader-like is expected. To test this notion, we examined gender and management stereotypes of male and female managers and students. Results reveal considerable change in male managers' views of women over the past 30 years, as evidenced by greater congruence between their perceptions of women and successful managers and stronger endorsement of agentic and task-oriented leadership characteristics for women. Stereotypes held by male students changed less, remaining strikingly similar to stereotypes held by male managers 15 years ago. Across samples, there was general agreement in the characteristics of managers but less agreement about the characteristics of women. We also found men somewhat less likely than women to attribute successful manager characteristics to women. Respondents with positive past experiences with female managers tended to rate women higher on management characteristics.     

Race × class stereotypes of women

Forty-four undergraduates assigned traditional stereotyping adjectives to middle-class black, middle-class white, lower-class black, and lower-class white female stimulus persons. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that these Race × Class stereotypes of women differed significantly by race and by social class, but there was no Race × Class interaction. The stereotype of white women was rated significantly higher than that of black women on dependent, passive, and emotional. The stereotype of lower-class women was rated significantly higher than that of middle-class women on confused, dirty, hostile, inconsiderate, and irresponsible. Although the stereotypes of women differed significantly by race and social class, all were stereotypically feminine. In addition, the stereotypes of white women, and of middle-class women were most similar to traditional stereotypes of women. Thus, it was concluded that both race and social class are implicit variables in sex-role stereotypes.     

Rape-supportive attitudes and sexual victimization experiences of sorority and nonsorority women

This study explored the link between sorority membership and rape-supportive attitudes and sexual victimization experiences. Data from a random sample of primarily white college women indicated that there were statistically significant differences between sorority women and nonsorority women on two of four rape-supportive attitudes (the acceptance of rape myths and the acceptance of interpersonal violence). Sorority women were also significantly more likely than nonsorority women to have been forced to have sexual intercourse because a partner either used physical force or threatened to use physical force. There was no significant difference between sorority women and nonsorority women in victimization through social, or nonviolent, coercion. However, sorority women had a significantly higher rate of nonconsensual intercourse while under the influence of alcohol or drugs.     

Judgement Accuracy in Body Preferences Among African Americans

Perceptions of body size vary by gender and ethnicity. Women are more dissatisfied with their bodies than are men and Caucasian women are more dissatisfied with their bodies than are African American women. The purpose of this study was to examine if African American men and women accurately estimate the level of thinness preferred by the opposite gender. We predicted that African American women would correctly estimate the level of thinness found attractive by African American men, thereby providing support for the explanation that African American women are partially protected from experiencing similar levels of body dissatisfaction as Caucasian women do because they correctly estimate that African American men like larger women. Participants were 68 African American women and 34 African American men. The results supported our prediction, African American women accurately estimate the level of thinness preferred by African American men.     

Reproductive‐age women are overrepresented among perpetrators of husband killing

When a woman kills her husband, it is almost always an unplanned action of self‐defense against a battering husband or a last‐ditch attempt to survive a batterer's tyranny. Younger, reproductive‐age women are battered and killed by husbands at higher rates than are older, postreproductive‐age women. Because husband killing occurs in the context of self‐defense or as a last‐ditch effort to survive, reproductive‐age women should kill their husbands at higher rates than do postreproductive‐age women. I used a sample of 8,077 husband killings to test this hypothesis. Results support the hypothesis and document that (1) the highest rates of husband killing are for the youngest women, (2) the youngest husbands are at greatest risk of being killed by their wives, (3) women married to older men kill their husbands at higher rates than do women married to same‐age men and women married to younger men, and (4) reproductive‐age women kill their husbands at higher rates than do postreproductive‐age women across two groups: women married to younger men and women married to older men. Discussion suggests directions for future work that can improve the identification of women at greatest risk for husband killing. Aggr. Behav. 26:309–317, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Breast self-examination and cervical (Pap) smear test: attitudes and self-reported practices among South African women.

This study investigated the attitudes and practices of breast self-examination and cervical (Pap) smear test among South African women. The sample included 150 Black and 150 White women chosen by systematic random sampling from telephone directories. The Black women were within the age range of 18 to 80 years (M age 38.9 yr., SD = 4.7), and the White women were within the age range of 19 to 91 years (M age 41.8 yr., SD = 3.5). Analysis indicated that 97.1% of the White women and 44.9% of the Black women said that they know how to examine their breasts. Of those women, significantly more Black (56.1%) than White (8.9%) women examined with the recommended frequency of more than 10 times a year. Of the Black women 60.5% and 8.4% of White women had never had a cervical smear test. Logistic regression analysis indicated that attitudes were an independent predictor for these two tests.     

Women's Sexual Health: The Need for Feminist Analyses in Public Health in the Decade of Behavior

Women's sexual health is directly affected by women's low status in society. This low status, and subsequent lack of sexual autonomy, not only increases risk for sexual health problems, it also decreases ability to obtain treatment and support when a sexual health concern arises. This has clearly been demonstrated in the HIV epidemic within the U.S.. Earlier in the epidemic, women were simply ignored by public health research and practice. Once they could no longer be ignored, they were blamed and viewed as vectors. Current seroprevalence rates among men reveal that women are not significant vectors. In contrast, rates among women indicate that infection from men is the primary mechanism by which women are contracting HIV, and male-controlled sexual decision-making, male partner violence against women, and histories of sexual assault all contribute to increased HIV risk for women. Once infected, women are not given the support and resources they need as mothers and caretakers of HIV-positive partners and/or children. These findings are especially true for marginalized women such as women of color, poor women, women addicted to alcohol or drugs, and women who exchange sex for drugs or money. Findings from this review demonstrate the need for feminist approaches in understanding and addressing this issue in the Decade of Behavior. Such approaches must include an understanding of the needs of diverse women. An empowerment approach is needed to better contend with the sexual health needs of women; this must include the goal of ensuring women's control of their own bodies.     

Beautiful,Self‐Absorbed,and Shallow: People of Color Perceive White Women as an Ethnically Marked Category

Non‐Whites' stereotypes of White women were examined, comparing three perspectives: (1) White women are perceived similarly to ethnically “generic” stereotypes of women; (2) stereotypes are opposite of stereotypes of participants' own ethnic group; and (3) stereotypes are derived from media images of White women. In Study 1, participants listed stereotypes of White women in an open‐ended fashion. In Study 2, those stereotypes were developed into a close‐ended questionnaire, completed by a second set of participants. White women were perceived as attractive, blonde, ditsy, shallow, privileged, sexually available, and appearance focused. We concluded that White women are ethnically marked. Stereotypes of White women are consistent with media images of White women.     

The bad taste of social ostracism: The effects of exclusion on the eating behaviors of African-American women

African-American women experience disproportionately higher rates of obesity than do Caucasian women. The stress African-American women encounter from experiences of discrimination may influence their eating behaviours, which could contribute to weight gain. Emotional eating theory suggests some people increase their intake of high-calorie foods to cope with stressful experiences. We investigated the effects of social exclusion by other African-American women or by Caucasian women for African-American women’s distress and food consumption using a laboratory paradigm. As hypothesised, there were main effects of ostracism and interactions between ostracism and race, although not all of the interactions took the expected form. As hypothesised, African-American women ate more potato crisps after being excluded by Caucasians than by African-Americans. Unexpectedly, African-American women who were excluded by other African-American women self-reported more emotional distress than did African-American women excluded by Caucasian women. These findings suggest that ostracism by both in-group and out-group members are disturbing, although people may respond to in-group and out-group exclusion in different ways. Directions for future research are suggested that could elucidate the circumstances under which different emotional and behavioural coping responses are employed.