Assessing the Behavior of Girls: What We See and What We Miss

Three standardized measures of child and adolescent behavior are reviewed for their attention to issues salient in the experiences of girls in late childhood and adolescence (ages 12 to 18; American; American and Brown & Gilligan 1992). The Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form (Achenbach and Achenbach), the Behavior Assessment System for Children (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992), and the Social Skills Rating System (Gresham & Elliott, 1990) are analyzed. Challenges to psychologists in schools for including the experiences of girls in the knowledge base grounding their practice and research are articulated.     

Media Use and Adolescent Psychological Adjustment: An Examination of Gender Differences

This study examined media use and psychological adjustment (as indicated by depression and anxiety symptomatology) in a sample of 328 14- to 16-year-old adolescents. Primary goals of the study were to explore whether media use differs by gender, whether media use is related to adolescent psychological problems, and whether media use moderates the relationship between parental alcoholism and adolescent psychological adjustment. Adolescents were surveyed in the spring of 2006, and again one year later. Gender differences in media use were observed with boys spending more time playing video games than girls and girls spending more time talking on the phone than boys. Strikingly, none of the types of media examined was associated with depression or anxiety. Moreover, media use acted as a protective factor for boys. Boys who spent relatively more time playing video games and watching television had the lowest levels of anxiety, especially those from alcoholic homes. The opposite pattern emerged for girls.     

Exposure to Sexually Objectifying Media and Body Self-Perceptions among College Women: An Examination of the Selective Exposure Hypothesis and the Role of Moderating Variables

Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) contends that media that places women’s bodies and appearance at a premium can acculturate women to self-objectify (i.e., to view the self primarily in terms of externally perceivable attributes), or to feel anxious or ashamed of their bodies. However, another unexplored possibility is that antecedent levels of self-objectification, appearance anxiety, and body shame could drive the selection or avoidance of sexually objectifying media. The goals of the present study were two-fold: first, to test the directionality of the associations between exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions (i.e., does exposure to sexually objectifying media predict body self-perceptions or vice versa); and second, to explore the possible moderating influence of thin-ideal internalization, global self-esteem, and BMI on the relations between exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions. A 2-year panel study of female undergraduates was conducted. The results show that Time-1 trait self-objectification, appearance anxiety, and body shame all negatively predicted Time-2 exposure to sexually objectifying media. Moreover, Time-1 exposure to sexually objectifying media predicted an increase in Time-2 trait self-objectification, particularly among women who were low in global self-esteem.     

Body Dissatisfaction in Adolescent Boys and Girls: Objectified Body Consciousness, Internalization of the Media Body Ideal and Perceived Pressure from Media

The aim of the present study was to examine a theoretical model describing the relationships between body shame and body surveillance (components of objectified body consciousness), internalization of the media body ideal, perceived pressure from media, body mass index and body dissatisfaction in Swiss adolescent boys and girls. A sample of 819 boys and 791 girls aged 14–16 years completed self-report measures of the mentioned concepts. As expected, girls had higher body shame and body surveillance than boys. Structural equation modelling supported the proposed model in both boys and girls. The findings suggest processes that may contribute to body dissatisfaction.     

父母因素、抵制效能感与青少年新媒介依赖行为的关系

以500名青少年手机拥有者为被试,采用问卷调查法考察青少年新媒介依赖(包括网络和手机依赖)的特点,并探讨父母因素和抵制效能感对青少年新媒介依赖的预测作用。结果发现:(1)40%的青少年至少存在边缘网络成瘾行为,19.8%的青少年为手机依赖者。青少年网络成瘾和手机依赖这两种新媒介依赖行为间具有显著的关联性,46.4%的青少年存在至少一种新媒介依赖行为。(2)青少年新媒介依赖行为与其抵制效能感、父母行为/态度及父母行为监控显著相关。青少年抵制效能感在父母行为/态度与青少年新媒介依赖行为之间起到完全中介的作用,在父母行为监控与青少年新媒介依赖行为间起到部分中介的作用。研究结果对提高青少年新媒介依赖行为预防干预活动的有效性和针对性具有重要的指导意义。     

Risk Factors for Institutional Misconduct Among Incarcerated Women: An Examination of the Criterion-Related Validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory

This study tested the hypothesis that the Last-Weiss (Last &; Weiss, 1976) Rorschach Ego-Strength Scale would predict outcome among a representative sample of first-lifetime psychiatric admissions. One hundred seventeen patients were assessed with structured symptom, psychiatric history, and social data interviews at hospital admission, and 2-year follow-up. Outcome measures included a multidimensional variable involving rehospitalization time, social and work functioning, and recent symptom level and symptom measures. Unexpectedly, the Last-Weiss Sum E variable correlated significantly with negative multidimensional outcome, a result that was strengthened when any possibly confounding effects of social class, IQ, and number of Rorschach responses were partialled out. It was found that Sum E's predictive value for poorer outcome was due to the space response (S +) component of the ego-strength variable. Possible explanations of the findings and implications for the previously validated Klopfer's Rorschach Prognostic Rating Scale are discussed.     

Testing a Moderated Mediation Model of Objectification Theory among Black Women in the United States: The Role of Protective Factors

Recent studies find that Black women experience rates of eating pathology and body dissatisfaction comparable to those of White women. Abundant research suggests that objectification theory could help explain the development and maintenance of eating disorder (ED) symptoms among diverse women. However, research on the applicability of objectification theory to ED symptoms in Black women is equivocal. Specifically, some have suggested that body surveillance might operate differently for Black women. Thus, the current study examined ethnic-racial identity (ERI) commitment and body appreciation as moderators of the mediated associations among body surveillance, body shame, and ED symptoms. Black women (n?=?175) in the United States completed measures of body image, ERI commitment, and ED symptoms. Consistent with objectification theory, body shame mediated the association between body surveillance and ED symptoms. Contrary to our hypothesis, ERI commitment did not moderate the link between body surveillance and body shame. However, body appreciation was a significant moderator, such that the strength of the relation between body surveillance and ED symptoms via body shame was weakened at high levels of body appreciation. Future work should consider interventions that foster body appreciation in Black women.

     

An Examination of Gendered Violence and School Push-Out Directed Against Urban Black Girls/Adolescents: Illustrative Data,Cases and a Call to Action

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on Black girls/adolescents, a frequently neglected group, given a dominant focus on Black males and their risk status within the school-to-prison pipeline. This article provides a framework for the analysis of the gendered violence to which Black girls/adolescents are subjected while urging a shift in focus from individual-level behavior to a focus on social contextual, structural, and social determinant factors; this means a shift from focusing on proximal factors to distal or upstream factors operating as underlying mechanisms. Both illustrative data and cases are presented and analyzed to highlight how racial disparities in suspension, expulsion, and discipline—which disproportionately negatively impact Black girls/adolescents compared to White girls/adolescents—necessitate a major call to action to close these disturbing gaps.     

Communication Media Preferences in Business-To-Business Transactions: An Examination of the Purchase Process

Although communication in marketing has been researched extensively, communication in buyer–seller exchanges during the sales process has received limited attention. This study examines the complexity of information interchange and buyers’ and sellers’ communication preferences for various media types during each stage of the purchase process. Findings reveal that, overall, buyers and sellers prefer face-to-face and telephone communications over other media types. For certain aspects of the sales process, computer-mediated communications, such as e-mail, serve an important role as a lowcost medium, whereas in other phases of the sales process, richer communication media are preferred by both buyers and sellers.     

In Their Own Words: The Meaning of the Strong Black Woman Schema among Black U.S. College Women

Black girls are socialized to be “strong” under the premise that strength will serve as a means of psychological resistance to oppression prevalent within American society. Although research demonstrates that Black women who internalize ideals of strength (independence, emotional restraint, and self-sacrifice) reap some psychosocial benefits, strength is linked to several psychological consequences. The growing understanding of these consequences have put Black women at a crossroads—forced to reconcile the wisdom of matriarchs with the detriments of being strong. This tension has pushed Black women, especially young women, to reconsider their relationship with strength and redefine its meaning for themselves. The current study sought to qualitatively examine Black U.S. college women’s (n?=?220; M_age?=?21.88, SD?=?3.96, range?=?18–48) varying perceptions of strength, specifically focusing on the meaning women attributed to being a strong Black woman and their attributions to others’ perceptions of strength. Our results revealed that although Black college women recognize that strong Black women may be perceived negatively (e.g., angry) by others, they continue to perceive strength as a relevant aspect of Black womanhood and have redefined strength in novel ways. We conclude by discussing how researchers may advance our understanding of strength and the ways clinicians may support women in defining strength for wellness.

     

A Qualitative Examination of the Relationship Between Body Image and Sexual Behavior: Perceptions from Latina and African American Adolescent Girls and Their Maternal Caregivers

Although prior work suggests that how adolescent girls feel about their body is associated with their sexual behavior, we have less insight into the reasons why. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 25 African American adolescent girls (11–14 years of age), 18 Latina adolescents (14–17 years of age), and their maternal caregivers to explore why this association may exist. Both adolescent girls and their maternal caregivers were asked “Who is more likely to have sex, a girl who likes the way her body looks or a girl who doesn’t like the way her body looks?” A similar question was asked about condom use. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and coded for emergent themes using thematic analysis. Participants’ responded that both girls with a positive body image and those with a negative body image may be likely to have sex because of self- and body-esteem. Two sub-themes emerged that further explained why low self- and body-esteem mattered for girls who have a negative perception of their body: (a) feeling appreciated (b) easily persuaded. Most participants noted that girls with a positive body image perception would be more likely to use condoms. Emergent themes for using condoms were: (a) pregnancy/STI protection; and (b) body preservation. Our findings have implications for empirically exploring the pathways through which body image perceptions relate to adolescent sexual behaviors, and the possibility that universal prevention programs may not resonate similarly for all adolescent girls.     

Understanding the Sex Difference in Vulnerability to Adolescent Depression: An Examination of Child and Parent Characteristics

This study examined sex differences in risk factors associated with adolescent depression in a large sample of boys and girls. Moderation and mediation explanatory models of the sex difference in likelihood of depression were examined. Findings indicate that the factors associated with depression in adolescent boys and girls are quite similar. All of the variables considered were associated with depression, but sex did not moderate the impact of vulnerability factors on likelihood of depression diagnosis. However, negative self-perceptions in the domains of achievement, global self-worth, and physical appearance partially mediated the relationship between sex and depression. Further, girls had higher levels of positive self-perceptions in interpersonal domains that acted as suppressors and reduced the likelihood of depression in girls. These findings suggest that girls' higher incidence of depression is due in part to their higher levels of negative self-perceptions, whereas positive interpersonal factors serve to protect them from depressive episodes.     

Fatherhood and Delinquency: An Examination of Risk Factors and Offending Patterns Associated with Fatherhood Status among Serious Juvenile Offenders

Despite a large body of literature across multiple disciplines on adolescent motherhood, adolescent fathers have been largely absent from empirical research. Previous findings suggest that young men who experience multiple risk factors across a range of life domains have a high likelihood of becoming fathers at an early age, which can negatively impact their developmental trajectories and age-normative transitions (e.g. from school to work). However, little is known about the risk factors for fatherhood among high-risk juvenile offenders; nor is it well understood how fatherhood is related to criminal behavior in this population. The current study investigated risk factors and offending patterns associated with adolescent fatherhood status in a sample of serious juvenile offenders (N?=?1170). Consistent with previous studies, fatherhood status was associated with greater risk exposure among serious juvenile offenders. Furthermore, change in fatherhood status was associated with higher levels of overall offending, aggressive offending, income-related offending, and non-drug-related income offending. In light of these findings, we propose that supports and resources are needed to facilitate juvenile offenders in their role as fathers during this time.     

Underneath the Mask of the Strong Black Woman Schema: Disentangling Influences of Strength and Self-Silencing on Depressive Symptoms among U.S. Black Women

Sex Roles - Recent investigations have elucidated the influence of the Strong Black Woman (SBW) Schema on the mental health and treatment seeking behaviors of Black women in the United States....     

Stress, Cortisol, and Externalizing Behavior in Adolescent Males: An Examination in the Context of Multisystemic Therapy

Stress and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation have been associated with externalizing behavior in adolescence, but few studies have examined these factors in a treatment context. This study investigated the relationship between stress, cortisol, and externalizing behavior among 120 adolescent males (mean age?=?15) receiving Multisystemic Therapy (MST). To examine the differential relationship of cortisol with various types of stressors, self-report measures assessed lifetime stress, current episodic stress, and daily hassles. Morning and afternoon cortisol samples were collected to examine whether the relationship between stress and treatment outcome depended on the youth's biological stress levels. Regression analyses indicated that awakening cortisol levels moderated the relationship between daily hassles and externalizing behaviors at post-treatment. More specifically, higher levels of daily hassles predicted worse outcomes only among adolescents with high levels of morning cortisol. In addition, lifetime stressors and afternoon measures of cortisol interacted to predict changes in caretaker reports of externalizing problems and youth arrests following treatment; lifetime stressors were positively associated with externalizing behavior when adolescents had low levels of afternoon cortisol. Implications for theory and future directions for evidence-based treatment are discussed.     

An Observational Study on How Situational Factors Influence Media Multitasking With TV: The Role of Genres,Dayparts, and Social Viewing

This study responds to the need for research on individuals' media multitasking behavior using observational data. Media multitasking can have a profound impact on media processing and effects. However, we have little knowledge on when people are likely to engage in media multitasking and, consequently, when these effects are likely to occur. This study examines how three important situational factors—television genres, dayparts, and social viewing—influence the amount of media multitasking. Granular observational data obtained by directly monitoring and recording media consumption behaviors of a large panel at 10-second intervals are used for the analysis. The study reveals that media multitasking with television is most prevalent when people watch sports or engage in channel surfing and less prevalent with commercials, news, and entertainment. Furthermore, the extent of media multitasking is greater in the morning and afternoon than in the evening, and also greater when individuals watch television alone than in the presence of others. Daypart differences are larger for genres associated with incidental viewing (commercials and channel surfing) than for genres associated with intentional viewing (news, entertainment, and sports). Sports is the only genre that is associated with higher amounts of media multitasking when watching television with others.     

Navigating the Workplace: The Costs and Benefits of Shifting Identities at Work among Early Career U.S. Black Women

Although much progress has been made in race relations in the United States, discrimination still persists in the workplace. As a result, Black women, among individuals from other underrepresented groups, develop coping strategies, such as identity shifting, to diminish the negative consequences of discrimination. We used the phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory to examine shifting racial, gender, and class identities among early career (recent college graduates) U.S. Black women working in predominantly White environments. Drawing on ten semi-structured interviews with college-educated Black women, data were analyzed with an interpretative phenomenological analysis. The results revealed two major themes: (a) benefits of identity shifting and (b) the costs of identity shifting, the latter with five subthemes: (a) managing interpersonal rejection: frozen effect, (b) assimilation to the dominant culture and inauthenticity, (c) confronting and dismantling stereotypes, (d) model Black citizen, and (c) mixed feelings toward identity shifting. The findings indicate that Black women vacillate between the benefits and costs of identity shifting, altering their dialect and behavior to meet social norms. Our study’s implications suggest the necessity of a multicultural approach by employers to affirm their workers’ social identities, strengthen employee relationships, and lessen the need for shifting identities.