Influence of the cost of responding

In three experiments, the effect of costs associated with responding on judgments of the causal effectiveness of the response was examined. In Experiment 1, the temporal interval between outcomes was matched on a variable interval (VI) and a variable ratio (VR) schedule. When each response was made at some “cost,” and outcomes represented some “gain” for the subject, the rating of causal effectiveness for responses was higher on the VR than on the VI schedule. This relationship was absent when the outcome was a triangle Hash. In Experiment 2, the number of responses required per outcome on a VI and a VR schedule were matched, and responses on the VR schedule were rated as more causally effective. In Experiment 3, a VI-to-VR yoking procedure was used. With minimal response costs, judgments were similar on the VI and VR schedules, but with greater response costs, responses performed on the VR schedule were rated as more causally effective than those emitted on the VI schedule.     

自我威胁刺激对返回抑制的影响

使用线索-靶子范式,分别将面孔刺激作为线索(实验1)和靶子(实验2)呈现,考察自我扭曲面孔对返回抑制的影响。结果发现:自我扭曲面孔为线索时,与他人扭曲、他人中性面孔产生了实验性分离,自我扭曲面孔的返回抑制效应量最小;自我扭曲面孔为靶子时,返回抑制消失。研究结果揭示:以自我扭曲面孔为代表的自我威胁刺激激活了威胁性自我概念,缩小了注意搜索范围,可能是导致人际紧张的潜在自我认知机制。     

Resurgence of temporal patterns of responding

The resurgence of temporal patterns of key pecking by pigeons was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, positively accelerated and linear patterns of responding were established on one key under a discrete-trial multiple fixed-interval variable-interval schedule. Subsequently, only responses on a second key produced reinforcers according to a variable-interval schedule. When reinforcement on the second key was discontinued, positively accelerated and linear response patterns resurged on the first key, in the presence of the stimuli previously correlated with the fixed- and variable-interval schedules, respectively. In Experiment 2, resurgence was assessed after temporal patterns were directly reinforced. Initially, responding was reinforced if it approximated an algorithm-defined temporal pattern during trials. Subsequently, reinforcement depended on pausing during trials and, when it was discontinued, resurgence of previously reinforced patterns occurred for each pigeon and for 2 of 3 pigeons during a replication. The results of both experiments demonstrate the resurgence of temporally organized responding and replicate and extend previous findings on resurgence of discrete responses and spatial response sequences.     

Influence of the schedule of outcome presentation on causality judgements

Experiments examined the effect of various relationships between a response (pressing the space bar of a computer) and an outcome (a triangle flashing on a screen) on judgements of the causal effectiveness of the response. As the mean number of responses required per outcome on a variable-ratio (VR) schedule (Experiment 1) or the mean temporal interval on a variableinterval (VI) schedule (Experiment 2) increased, ratings of causal effectiveness of that response decreased. In Experiment 3, yoking procedures matched either the number of responses required per outcome or the temporal distributions of outcomes on a VI and a VR schedule, and responses on the VI schedule were rated more causally effective. In Experiment 4, the overall feedback function on a tandem VI VR and a tandem VR VI schedule was matched, and responses performed on the tandem VR VI schedule were rated as more causally effective.     

An Analysis of the Relevance of Topographical Similarity on Positive Practice of Spelling Errors

Two studies were conducted assessing the relevance of having students perform exercises with words spelled incorrectly on weekly pretests. Both studies used a multi-element design in which baseline was followed by the alternation of relevant positive practice (RPP) and irrelevant positive practice (IPP). In RPP, students were required to perform a variety of exercises on words spelled incorrectly on the pretest. In IPP, for each word spelled incorrectly, students had to perform similar exercises on words which were not on the spelling list. In all condition students took a posttest at the end of the week. In both cases, RPP and IPP produced superior spelling score on weekly tests compared to baseline. There were, however, insignificant differences between RPP and IPP. The superior scores on the posttests as compared to the pretests indicate the possibility of an educational component to the practice exercises. Comments by the students and teachers indicated their preference for RPP over IPP. Nevertheless, the extensive duration of the practice exercises may limit their usefulness.     

书法练习对儿童个性发展的影响

采用纵向研究设计,对124名三年级儿童进行了为期两年的追踪,旨在探讨书法训练对儿童个性发展的影响。通过实验组与对照组的比较发现：（1）在乐群性、聪慧性、稳定性等十三个个性特质上,时间的主效应极其显著;（2）在兴奋性、恃强性、敢为性特质上,书法练习的主效应显著;（3）在兴奋性、聪慧性、恃强性、轻松性和自律性特质上,时间与书法练习的交互作用显著。研究表明,书法练习对儿童个性的成长具有积极的影响作用。     

读帛书《二厽子》

本文系对帛书<二厽子>篇前半部分的解读,一方面结合今本<易传>及其他传世文献,运用文字学、训诂学的方法对<二厽子>中的疑难文字、词句进行了训释,另一方面对<二厽子>中今文易旨及其历史背景进行了分析研究,提出了自己的看法.     

History of a historian of psychology in the United States

This article focuses on the author's activities in the United States relating to the history of psychology. It does not deal with his involvement in applied psychology in Europe (1937-1939), and it only touches on research on malnutrition and behavior, illumination and performance, and aging carried out in the Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene at the University of Minnesota (1941-1958). Activities bearing on the history of psychology dominated the years spent at Lehigh University (1959-1979) and the years of retirement (1979-present). The principal events include organizing the first scientific meeting of the American Psychological Association's Division 26, History of Psychology (1966); two summer institutes on the history of psychology (1968, 1971); the editing of a historically oriented volume on psychology in the USSR (1972) and of R.I. Watson's papers on the history of psychology (1977); organizing and editing a volume containing 6 monographs on the history of psychology in the United States (1984); and editing a volume concerned with international research during the years 1919-1981 on malnutrition and behavior.     

Frequency of reinforcement as a parameter of conditioned suppression

Two pigeons were trained on a multiple VI-1; VI-4 min schedule for food reinforcement until a stable differential rate of response was established. Each component of the multiple schedule was in effect for 10 min and was separated from the other by 1 min time out. An Estes-Skinner conditioned suppression procedure was superimposed on each component of the schedule. The relative magnitude of the suppression behavior was measured during its acquisition and extinction, and at CS durations of 100, 200, and 300 sec. The initial magnitude of the suppression behavior was less severe on the VI-1 baseline than on the VI-4, and it extinguished more rapidly on the VI-1. As the relative duration of the CS was increased, the suppression behavior became less severe on both baselines, but the initial differential magnitude in the suppression remained intact.     

后现代主义思潮影响下的自我研究

后现代主义思潮的兴起使自我研究重新受到重视。后现代主义思潮影响下的自我研究将出现新的特征：从传统的个人主义取向的概念界定转向从社会和个人双重取向的概念界定;从单纯重视自我的稳定性研究转向将自我的稳定性与可变性结合;从重视自我发展的一般规律研究到重视文化对自我发展的影响。     

灸法衰落原因的探讨与思考

从产生疼痛、带来创伤、耗时较长等内部原因及重药轻灸、重医轻灸、西医冲击等外部因素探讨灸法自身局限与衰落原因,据此提出灸法技术发展及理论创新的思考。     

On the evolution of handedness: a speculative analysis of Darwin's views and a review of early studies of handedness in "the nearest allies of man"

Scientists today who seek clues into the evolutionary origins of human handedness make extensive use of evidence from comparative studies, that is, studies that ask whether handedness occurs in other species, especially apes and monkeys, as the Darwinian principle of continuity would seem to imply, or whether it is uniquely human. Early investigations had the same goal and drew on much the same kind of evidence. In this article, I review studies of animal handedness in the period before 1859, when Darwin published On the Origin of Species, and afterward, through the 1st decade of the 20th century. Inasmuch as Darwin's published writings contain hardly any statements about handedness and none at all about its evolution and continuity across species, I also speculate about what Darwin himself might have said on the subject. To do this, I draw on his statements on related matters, such as the form and structure of the hand and the transition from a quadrupedal to bipedal stance, on other writers' reports and opinions about handedness with which he was familiar or likely to have been familiar, and finally, on clues from his own and only statement about animal handedness in an unpublished letter. I conclude by asking whether and how early investigators, lacking any statement by Darwin on the evolution of handedness, invoked his theory of evolution and his views on related matters in the interpretation of their findings.     

权利概念与当代中国道德建设研究

“权利”和权利观念的凸现,已经并将继续对社会伦理关系和道德建设产生深刻的影响,同时也必然会对我国伦理学研究和发展以巨大的推动,公民道德建设必须坚持权利与义务相统一的方针原则。     

流动儿童消极学业情绪对学习自我效能感的影响:情绪调节策略的调节作用

以397名流动儿童为被试,采用问卷法考察流动儿童消极学业情绪对学习自我效能感的影响以及情绪调节策略在其中的调节作用。结果表明：（1）流动儿童学业情绪对控制感的负向预测作用高于对基本能力感的预测作用,其中有恼火、羞愧、无助对基本能力感预测作用显著;认知重评对基本能力感预测作用显著,并且认知重评情绪调节策略对恼火、沮丧与基本能力感的关系有调节作用,而表达抑制对无助与基本能力感的关系有调节作用。（2）流动儿童学业情绪中除恼火外,焦虑、羞愧、厌倦、无助、沮丧和心烦对控制感的预测作用均显著。认知重评和表达抑制均对控制感的预测作用显著,并且认知重评与羞愧、厌倦、沮丧的调节作用显著,表达抑制与沮丧的调节作用显著。     

Mindreading abilities in sexual offenders: an analysis of theory of mind processes

The paper aims to assess the theory of mind (ToM) of sexual offenders. We administered to 21 sexual offenders and to 21 nonoffenders two classical first- and second-order ToM tasks, a selection of six Strange Stories, and a semi-structured interview, the Theory of Mind Assessment Scale (Th.o.m.a.s), which provides a multi-dimensional evaluation of ToM, investigating first- vs. third-person and egocentric vs. allocentric perspectives. Results show that sexual offenders performed worse than controls on second-order ToM tasks, on Strange Stories and on each of the Th.o.m.a.s dimensions, whereas they did as well as the control group on first-order ToM tasks. A detailed analysis of participants’ performance on Th.o.m.a.s. showed that sex offenders performed worse on the third-person than on the first-person ToM scale, and worse on the allocentric than on the egocentric perspective; these findings did not apply to the controls. Implications for future research and treatment are discussed.     

Evaluation of empirical methods and methodological foundations of human left-handedness

The methodological and empirical foundations underlying the theories on human left-handedness are examined, including the definition and classification of left-handedness, its relation to pathology, and the results on family, adoption, and twin research. It is argued that major research findings on left-handedness are based on inadequate empirical methods, and the concrete definitions and assessment procedures do not meet validity and reliability criteria. This also casts doubt on the relationship between left-handedness and pathology reported in the literature. Furthermore, findings from family, adoption, and twin studies do not allow interpretation of possible direct genetic contributions to explaining left-handedness. It is concluded that the methodological limitations of a causal explanation should encourage an examination of the epistemological and methodological premises of theory formulation. The functional method and a theoretical framework based on early childhood experiences and the neural plasticity of the brain may be more appropriate for the selection of empirical methods in research of human left-handedness.     

Understanding photos,models, and beliefs: A test of the modularity thesis of theory of mind

Recent experimental findings suggest that there is a dissociation between the performance by children with autism on False Belief tasks, on which they do poorly, and False Photograph, False Maps, and False Drawing tasks, on which they do well. This may be because only the False Belief task taps the capacity for metarepresentation, at least as defined by Leslie and Thaiss (1992). In an attempt to test the modularity of this capacity further, the performance of participants with autism on DeLoache's (1987, 1991) Model and Photograph tasks (which test understanding of the symbolic function of models and photographs), and on a standard False Belief task, was compared to that of mental handicap controls. The majority of participants from both groups passed the Photograph and Model tasks, and on neither task were there group differences. However, participants with mental handicap were significantly more successful on the False Belief task than those with autism. These results provide further support for the modularity of theory of mind, and the specificity of the metarepresentational deficit in autism.     

人际关系对青少年道德思维方式的影响*

为考察人际关系对不同年龄段青少年道德思维方式的影响,以机车道德两难困境为材料,采用2（计划路线受害者：亲人、陌生人）×2（非计划路线受害者：亲人、陌生人）×4（年级：小学、初中、高中、大学）被试间实验设计。结果发现,计划路线受害者和非计划路线受害者人际关系的交互作用显著,计划路线受害者为陌生人时,被试在非计划路线受害者为亲人时采用规则导向的思维方式,陌生人时则采用结果导向的思维方式;当非计划路线受害者为亲人时,被试在计划路线受害者为亲人时采用结果导向的思维方式,陌生人时采用规则导向的思维方式。年级与计划路线受害者的交互作用显著。研究支持了道德社会关系规则理论,个体的道德思维方式受到道德情境中人际关系的影响。人际关系对青少年道德思维方式的影响随着年级升高而增强,转折点在初二与高二之间。     

选择扩散效应研究的回顾与前瞻

由失调导致的态度改变一直受到社会心理学的关注,选择扩散效应是态度改变的结果之一。多个理论模型对此做出各种解释,近年来对失调的脑机制研究为行为模型提供了新的证据。文化心理学也涉足了这方面的研究,并多以自我模型为基础,发现东西方人在对失调的体验及随后的态度变化上存在文化差异。总结了选择扩散效应的研究意义后,文章从该效应的研究范式、心理机制和脑机制、文化影响三方面对相关研究进行回顾,在此基础上提出研究范式的区分、模型的整合、脑机制的进一步研究、减缓失调的积极作用是未来的研究趋势,并指出跨文化研究中应注意的问题     

Studying the specificity of spirituality: lessons from the psychology of religion

Psychological research on spirituality need not start from scratch: the psychology of religion provides substantial knowledge and experience that can be drawn on when psychologists want to do research on spirituality. Spirituality, while certainly not identical with religion or religiosity, is a human phenomenon to which many methodological insights from the study of religion may be applied, although it is also a domain where many mistakes from the history of the psychology of religion are likely to be repeated. After presenting some thoughts on the conceptualization of spirituality, and reflecting on the type of psychology required to do research on spirituality, the paper points out some hidden agenda's in the psychologies of religion and spirituality. Focusing on and keeping in mind the specificity of spiritual conduct, the paper discusses a number of practical aspects of empirical research on spirituality.