Bystanders’ reactions to intimate partner violence: an experimental approach

ABSTRACT

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a widespread phenomenon. Despite the prevalence of IPV in Western societies, most cases remain unnoticed or at least unreported to authorities. Social psychologists have been investigating bystanders’ reactions to IPV, to understand which factors may influence the willingness to intervene in support of a female victim of violence. We review a research programme that directly investigated personal and situational factors that make potential bystanders believe a woman victim of IPV deserves and needs (their) help and support, and what, on the contrary, makes them deny any such willingness to help. We present evidence about the situational antecedents of bystander’s reaction, the underlying mechanisms of this intervention, and an extension of such evidence to non-prototypical cases, i.e., to an IPV episode occurring within a same-sex couple. We conclude by discussing future directions, and by highlighting the theoretical and practical contributions of this programme of research to the understanding of IPV for both researchers and practitioners.     

A self-determination theory approach to problematic drinking and intimate partner violence

Problematic drinking has long been established as an important antecedent to the perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV). As little research has evaluated individual differences beyond anger in this association, this research examines problematic drinking and IPV perpetration through the lens of self-determination theory (SDT), the relational perspective suggesting individuals are motivated to be in their relationship for autonomous (i.e., self-driven) and controlled (i.e., guilt-driven) reasons. We test the hypothesis that problematic drinking is more strongly associated with IPV among those who are controlled in their motivation in four independent samples (N?=?617). College students in relationships completed measures of alcohol consumption, negative alcohol-related consequences, relationship motivation, and IPV perpetration. Results generally suggested that the association between both alcohol consumption and negative alcohol-related consequences and IPV perpetration is only significant among those endorsing greater controlled motivation. This study supports problematic drinking as not being an equal risk factor for all individuals, and suggests that some people may be more vulnerable to problematic drinking resulting in relationship aggression.     

Longitudinal factor structure of posttraumatic stress symptoms related to intimate partner violence

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) studies have suggested that a model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that is characterized by 4 factors is preferable to competing models. However, the composition of these 4 factors has varied across studies, with 1 model splitting avoidance and numbing symptoms (e.g., D. W. King, G. A. Leskin, L. A. King, & F. W. Weathers, 1998) and the other including a dysphoria factor that combines numbing and nonspecific hyperarousal symptoms (L. J. Simms, D. Watson, & B. N. Doebbeling, 2002). Using the PTSD Checklist (F. W. Weathers, B. T. Litz, D. S. Herman, J. A. Huska, & T. M. Keane, 1993) and CFA, the authors compared these models with competing models. A model of PTSD with 4 intercorrelated factors of Intrusions, Avoidance, Dysphoria, and Hyperarousal was found superior among 396 medical patients who screened positive for intimate partner violence (IPV) and 405 women seeking services for IPV. Structural invariance testing indicated that this 4-factor model remains stable across service setting and time.     

The case against the role of gender in intimate partner violence

I argue that Gondolf, Johnson and Dekeseredy, in a recent issue of Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal, presented one sided arguments and misleading evidence for the role of gender in intimate partner violence (IPV). Johnson and Dekeseredy use only female victim samples and Gondolf only a male perpetrator sample. These methods generate spurious support for the gender paradigm. Better methodology; longitudinal and laboratory studies indicate that bilateral IPV, matched for level of severity is the most common form of IPV. Our policies should be directed towards this most common form not the relatively rare "wife battering". The stereotype of IPV proffered by the gender paradigm has obscured the dyadic patterns and psychological profiles of IPV so that a "one size fits all" approach has been the normative response. The future of IPV policy lies in prevention and in models that treat abusive families as coherent systems.     

Comparison of impulsive and premeditated perpetrators of intimate partner violence

Violence occurs in four to five million intimate relationships each year in the United States. Past research has investigated the concept of batterer subtypes based on the nature of the violent behavior. To extend this research, the present study used the Impulsive/Premeditated Aggression Scale (IPAS) along with a battery of relevant self-report measures in a sample of men (N = 113) convicted of domestic violence and court ordered into an intervention program. Batterers whose violence was classified as premeditated scored higher on psychopathic traits and a measure of treatment rejection. Batterers whose violence was classified as impulsive in nature reported a wider range of serious psychopathology. It is suggested that the use of a bimodal classification (Impulsive/Premeditated) in batterers may have significant clinical and legal policy implications. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hormonal changes of intimate partner violence perpetrators in response to brief social contact with women

This study investigated whether men with a history of real-life aggressive, dominant behavior show increases in testosterone and cortisol levels after brief social contact with women. Furthermore, we tested the prediction that such changes in hormones would be larger than those observed previously in young male students. Sixty-seven male participants convicted of intimate partner violence (IPV) either had brief social contact with a female confederate (experimental condition) or a male confederate (control condition). We also performed meta-analyses to investigate whether IPV perpetrators' hormonal responses were larger than the typical responses of young male students in prior studies. All statistical analyses were preregistered. Change in testosterone did not differ across experimental conditions, and testosterone in the IPV perpetrators actually declined from baseline in the female confederate condition. Our meta-analysis showed that this testosterone decrease was different from the testosterone increase typically observed in young male students. The cortisol levels of IPV perpetrators did not change in response to contact with women. This result was consistent with our meta-analysis since young male students also did not experience a cortisol change in response to interactions with women. In sum, our findings provide no evidence that male IPV perpetrators exhibit larger hormone increases to brief interactions with women, although it is possible that the men in this sample did not perceive the social contact period as a courtship opportunity. These results suggest that hormone reactivity to social encounters may differ across subject populations and depend on how subjects perceive social situations within laboratory settings.     

Assessment of the efficacy of a psychological treatment for women victims of violence by their intimate male partner

This study evaluates the long-term efficacy of a brief psychotherapeutic cognitive-behavioral program in group format for female victims of violence by their intimate partner. 53 battered women were randomized into one of two intervention programs: one including among others exposure technique (n = 28) and another one in which exposure procedures were substituted by communication skills training (n = 25). Additionally, both programs included: psycho-education, breath control, training to improve self-esteem, cognitive restructuring, problem-solving, planning pleasant activities, and relapse prevention. The treatment was carried out in 8 weekly sessions. Measures of posttraumatic symptoms, anxiety, depression, self-esteem and anger expression were analyzed at pre- and post-treatment, and at 1-, 3-, 6- and 12-months follow-ups. Results show a pronounced decrease of posttraumatic, depressive and anxiety symptoms, which maintained in the different measure moments, with scarce difference between the two programs. The results and their clinical implications are discussed.     

Gender differences in the link between intimate partner physical violence and depression

Studies show that, in violent relationships, both partners suffer from higher levels of depression than in non-violent relationships. Most of these studies were based on samples of battered women. Very little research has examined the depression levels of women who physically assault a marital or dating partner or men who assault or are victims of female assaults. Moreover, the association between intimate partner physical violence and depression does not provide a theoretical framework or an explanation for the differences in depression levels of male and female perpetrators and victims. This article presents a preliminary, yet empirically grounded, foundation for explaining research findings on depression levels for males and females in three “Dyadic Types” of intimate partner physical violence: Male-Only, Female-Only, and Both Violent. The theoretical framework involves identifying the relation of intimate partner physical violence to be of greater male than female concern with status enhancement and greater female than male concern with risk reduction, and how these play out in each of the Dyadic Types.     

Alcohol intoxicated witnesses' interpretation of social behavior in intimate partner violence

Alcohol intoxication affects social information processing, though research is scarce regarding how alcohol affected eyewitnesses' perception of social interaction within an applied forensic context. In the present study, the effects of alcohol intoxication on eyewitnesses' perception of interaction in intimate partner violence (IPV) were investigated. The participants (n = 152) were randomized to an experimental (alcohol) or control group (juice). After consumption, they viewed a filmed IPV scenario where both interacting parties were confrontational. Afterwards, they rated the involved parties' behavior. Several behaviors were perceived in a similar manner by intoxicated and sober participants, but intoxicated participants perceived both parties' attacking behaviors and some of the man's prosocial behaviors differently than sober participants. Hence, alcohol affected some, but not all, kinds of social behaviors investigated in the present study. This would be of interest to legal praxis and to future studies on intoxicated witnesses to interpersonal violence.     

Relation of intimate partner violence to salivary cortisol among couples expecting a first child

Despite advances in understanding the role that several physiological systems play in the occurrence of general violence, little progress has been made toward understanding biological correlates of intimate partner violence (IPV). We explored involvement of one physiological system, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Among 137 heterosexual couples expecting a first child, baseline level of HPA activity-assessed via salivary cortisol collected before a couple conflict discussion-was linked to both men's and women's violence perpetration. HPA reactivity to the conflict bout did not show an independent association with IPV. However, persisting elevation in men's, and down-regulation in women's, HPA activity during a further recovery period was linked to men's violence perpetration.     

Beliefs about intimate partner violence: A survey of the Swedish general public

Public interventions are considered to be an important means of preventing intimate partner violence (IPV). What people believe about the nature of IPV is likely to determine their propensity to intervene, but little is known at present about IPV beliefs among the general public. In a survey of 650 Swedish citizens, beliefs about the prevalence and causes of IPV, and viable means of intervention were assessed. Respondents estimated, on average, that IPV occurs in almost one quarter of all intimate relationships in Sweden, and that IPV is particularly prevalent in low‐income groups, among non‐European immigrants, in suburban areas, and in couples under the age of 50 years. Physical violence was believed to be the most frequent form of abuse in male offender–female victim cases, whereas psychological violence was considered most frequent in other combinations of offender and victim gender. Female respondents estimated a higher prevalence of IPV, attributed less blame to IPV victims, and suggested more means of intervention, than did male respondents. The findings are discussed in relation to empirical prevalence estimates, and implications are proposed.     

Personality correlates of intimate partner violence subtypes: A latent class analysis

Perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) represent a heterogeneous group who engage in a variety of aggressive acts which often co‐occur. However, few studies take this co‐occurrence into consideration. Failure to consider overlapping forms of IPV confounds understanding of risk factors for physical IPV, which in turn undermines identification, prevention, and intervention efforts. Though rarely studied in emerging adults, personality variables have recently been identified as important correlates of IPV. The primary aims of the current studies are to identify distinct subgroups of moderate and severe psychological and physical IPV and personality covariates of class membership. Two studies were conducted at different public regional universities in the northeast (n = 500; n = 497). Both samples were about two‐thirds female, approximately one‐half White, one‐fifth Black, and one‐quarter Latino, of any race. Latent Class Analysis identified three subgroups in both studies: low, moderate, and severe IPV. The severe and moderate IPV groups included those who reported threats and moderate physical IPV while the severe IPV group also included those who engaged in severe and injurious forms of physical IPV. Multinomial regression analysis showed that impulsive aggression discriminated moderate and severe from low IPV (Study 1), and more frequent emotionally abusive and controlling behavior, a hostile‐dominant interpersonal style and trait aggression discriminated among all three groups, with severe IPV having the greatest likelihood of controlling behavior and aggression (Study 2). IPV is represented by distinct subgroups that vary by severity of IPV with different personality covariates. General aggressive and domineering tendencies in relationships characterize those engaging in severe IPV.

     

Women who perpetrate intimate partner violence: A review of the literature with recommendations for treatment

The purpose of this article is to review the literature on women as perpetrators of violence in their intimate relationships (i.e., domestically violent women) and summarize the scant literature on intervention programs for these women. Particular attention is paid to the cultural influences that shape our conceptualization of “domestic violence” and the fact that empirical research suggests that domestic violence has been falsely framed as exclusively male initiated violence. The article concludes with a discussion of the similarities and differences between male and female domestic violence offenders and identifies areas where treatment for female offenders might be improved.     

Cognitive and coping mechanisms in the interplay between intimate partner violence and depression

This study examined the association between intimate partner violence, maladaptive cognitive schemas, coping, and depression in a sample of 298 battered women. The results indicated that maladaptive cognitive schemas were associated with less use of primary and secondary engagement coping, and higher use of disengagement coping. In particular, cognitive schemas reflecting disconnection and rejection accounted for the association between psychological abuse and percentage of disengagement coping. In addition, disengagement coping partially mediated between cognitive schemas and depressive symptoms. Finally, the role of cognitive schemas as personal constraints that affect the choice of coping and the implications for interventions with victims are discussed.     

Associations of substance use problems with intimate partner violence for at-risk men in long-term relationships

Associations of substance use problems in men--defined as a man's meeting at least 1 criterion of dependence on each of a number of substances by his mid-20s--with their perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV) were examined in an at-risk community sample of 150 men in long-term relationships from their late adolescence to their late 20s. Men who had a problem with substances other than sedatives (especially cannabis and hallucinogens) committed more IPV than did men without such problems. Most of the men who had a problem with marijuana also had an alcohol problem, which explains why alcohol was found to have only an indirect association with IPV. The failure of previous alcohol-use studies to control for co-occurrence of alcohol and marijuana problems may explain the discrepancy with conclusions from past research that alcohol problems contribute directly to the perpetration of IPV.