Acute Intellectual Effects of Pediatric Head Trauma

The current study compared Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (WISC-III) performances of 30 children who sustained head injury with the performance of orthopedic controls matched on gender, age, race, and parental education and occupational attainment. Children were followed during initial hospitalization, trauma severity variables were recorded, and duration of posttraumatic amnesia (PTA) was determined by serial testing of mental status. The WISC-III was administered immediately following resolution of amnesia. Although the majority of patients sustained mild injuries, children with head injuries obtained significantly lower IQ and factor scores than nonneurologically injured children. Consistent with past research, performance-based scores including Performance IQ, Perceptual Organization, and Processing Speed were more sensitive to head trauma than their verbal counterparts. Standardized measurement of PTA appeared to be a better predictor of IQ status following injury than Glasgow Coma Scale score on admission or length of unconsciousness.     

Family Functioning,Parental Psychological Distress and Child Behaviours: Evidence from the Victorian Child Health and Wellbeing Study

We examined, using data from the 2006 Victorian Child Health and Wellbeing Study (VCHWS), whether family functioning is associated with parental psychological distress and children's behavioural difficulties. The VCHWS was a statewide cross‐sectional telephone survey to 5,000 randomly selected primary caregivers of 0‐ to 12‐year‐old children between October 2005 and March 2006. Only parents or guardians of children aged 4–12 years (n = 3,370) were included in this study. After adjusting for sociodemographic variables and ethnicity, parents or guardians scoring higher on the family functioning scale (i.e., from poorly functioning households) were at greater risk of psychological distress and had children with lower levels of prosocial behaviour and higher levels of behavioural difficulties relative to those from healthily functioning households. Mental health prevention programmes addressing child mental and conduct problems should consider the family environment and target those families functioning poorly.     

Institutional care and iron deficiency increase ADHD symptomology and lower IQ 2.5–5 years post‐adoption

Increased ADHD symptomology and lower IQ have been reported in internationally adopted (IA) children compared to non‐adopted peers (Hostinar, Stellern, Schaefer, Carlson & Gunnar, 2012; Kreppner, O'Connor & Rutter, 2001). However, it is unclear whether these outcomes are due to institutional deprivation specifically or to co‐occurring micronutrient deficiencies that disrupt brain development (Fuglestad, Rao & Georgieff, 2008b). In this study, IA children were compared to children raised in their biological families to examine differences in ADHD symptomology and IQ 2.5–5 years post‐adoption and to assess the contributions of iron deficiency (ID) and duration of deprivation to these cognitive outcomes. ADHD symptoms (parent‐ and experimenter‐reported) and IQ were evaluated in 88 IA (M = 62.1 months, SD = 2.4) and 35 non‐adopted children (M = 61.4 months, SD = 1.6). IA children were assessed 29–64 months post‐adoption (M = 41.9 months, SD = 10.2). ID was assessed during the initial post‐adoption medical visit in 69 children, and children were classified into four groups by iron status, ranging from normal to ID anemia (most severe). IA children had greater ADHD symptomology, p < .01, and lower IQ, p = .001, than non‐adopted children. Within the IA group, children with more severe ID at adoption had greater ADHD symptomology, r(69) = 0.40, p = .001, and lower IQ, r(68) = −0.28, p < .05. Duration of institutional care was positively correlated with ADHD symptoms, r(86) = .28, p < .01, but not IQ, r(85) = −.08, p = .52. Longitudinal results indicate improvement in IQ from 12 months post‐adoption to age 5 for children with greater ID severity at adoption and longer duration of institutional care but no improvement in ADHD symptoms. These results signify continuing effects of early deprivation and ID on ADHD symptoms and IQ years after adoption. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vUFDAS3DD1c     

Relations between nonverbal intelligence and personality reports in late childhood

We investigated relations between children’s personality and their nonverbal intelligence.Simple correlations showed that children’s intelligence was positively associated with self-reported benevolence levels and with parental reports on their conscientiousness and imagination levels. Regression analyses revealed a more complex association pattern, with intelligence/personality correlations being moderated by the variables of child and parent gender. Results also yielded a lower personality domain overlap for children with higher IQ, in agreement with the differentiation hypothesis.     

IQ decline following early unilateral brain injury: a longitudinal study

We examine whether children with early unilateral brain injury show an IQ decline over the course of development. Fifteen brain injured children were administered an IQ test once before age 7 and again several years later. Post-7 IQ scores were significantly lower than pre-7 IQ scores. In addition, pre-7 IQ scores were lower for children with larger lesions, but children with smaller lesions and higher pre-7 IQ scores showed a greater IQ decline over time. These findings suggest that the cognitive outcomes of children with early lesions, particularly those with relatively small lesions, change over the course of development.     

The Relationship Between Caregiver Capacity and Intensive Community Treatment for Children with a Mental Health Crisis

We studied 9,220 children referred to a comprehensive mental health crisis stabilization program to examine the impact of caregiver capacity on crisis worker decisions to refer children for intensive community-based treatment as opposed to inpatient psychiatric hospitalization. Due to the different role of caregivers in the child welfare system, analyses were stratified by state custody status. Among both groups, there was a significant inverse association between child mental health need and referral to intensive community-based treatment. For children not in state custody with low mental health need, there was no difference in the likelihood of referral to intensive community-based treatment across levels of caregiver capacity. However, for children not in state custody with medium and high mental health needs, those whose caregivers were deficient or severely deficient were significantly more likely to be referred for intensive community-based treatment than were those who had capable caregivers. Multivariate analyses demonstrated similar results after controlling for potential confounding variables and confirmed that caregiver capacity contributes significantly to the logistic model’s classification accuracy. Results suggest further investigation of the impact of caregiver capacity on mental health crisis worker referral decisions is needed.     

Psychological aspects of myelomeningocele—a longitudinal study

The possibilities of treatment of the congenital neurological disease myelomeningocele have improved since the 1960s. The patients who survive often suffer from severe motor and mental handicaps, and it has been discussed whether a selection should be made of those children who should be treated or whether all children should be treated. Here we present results of a longitudinal study of 56 children, who were all treated and still continue active treatment. The results show that mental retardation was not greater than in groups of children selected for treatment according to a criterion. There was no difference between the sexes. Mean IQ was 90, 75% attended normal school, and only 33% received remedial instruction, primarily because of difficulties with emptying the bladder.     

A comparison of characteristics,developmental disorders and motor progression between children with and without developmental coordination disorder

Background and aimChildren with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have difficulty in the development of motor coordination and with learning new motor skills. Studies demonstrate that children with DCD differ in terms of the nature and severity of their motor difficulties, the incidence of co occurring conditions and family background. However, little is known whether these profiles may relate to motor progression over time. The aim of this study was to describe the profiles of children with and without DCD and track motor progression over time.MethodThe characteristics of thirty-four 7–14 year old children (M = 10.07, 85.3% boys) with and without DCD were compared and their motor progression monitored over a two academic years. DCD was identified using DSM5 criteria. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to classify children as TD (≥25th percentile), having moderate motor coordination difficulties (6-16th percentile) or severe motor coordination difficulties (≤ 5th percentile). The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test – 2 (KBIT-2) was used to measure full scale IQ. Parent questionnaires were used to gather information on socio economic status and co occurrence of other developmental disorders. We used ANOVA to assess whether there were differences in characteristics between the TD children, children with severe motor coordination difficulties and children with moderate motor coordination difficulties. Linear mixed effect modelling was used to estimate any change in motor performance over time and whether this differed between the three groups of children.ResultsChildren with severe motor coordination difficulties had distinct profiles in motor and non-motor domains, lower IQ and a greater likelihood of having associated characteristics of 2 or more developmental disorders. We found significant differences between the poor motor performance of the severe group compared to the other two groups. Longitudinal analyses revealed stable, persistent and lower motor competence for the severe group. The rate of change in motor proficiency for the typical and severe groups was similar. However, the group with moderate motor difficulties gained on average more points per week compared to the typical group and achieved motor scores in the typically developing range over time.ConclusionsThis is one of the first studies to compare the characteristics and rate of motor progression of children with and without DCD using different motor proficiency cut off scores. The children with severe motor coordination difficulties progressed at the same rate as typically developing peers but remained in the severe group over time, whereas the children with moderate motor coordination difficulties caught up to TDC. The results indicate that different intervention may be required according to the nature and severity of the characteristics in both the motor and non-motor domains of children with DCD.     

The visuospatial functions in children after cerebellar low‐grade astrocytoma surgery: A contribution to the pediatric neuropsychology of the cerebellum

The aim of this study was to specify whether cerebellar lesions cause visuospatial impairments in children. The study sample consisted of 40 children with low‐grade cerebellar astrocytoma, who underwent surgical treatment and 40 healthy controls matched with regard to age and sex. Visuospatial abilities were tested using the spatial WISC‐R subtests (Block Design and Object Assembly), Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure, Benton Judgment of Line Orientation Test, PEBL Mental Rotation Task, and Benton Visual Retention Test. To exclude general diffuse intellectual dysfunction, the WISC‐R Verbal Intelligence IQ, Performance IQ, and Full‐Scale IQ scores were analysed. Post‐surgical medical consequences were measured with the International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale. Compared to controls, the cerebellar group manifested problems with mental rotation of objects, visuospatial organization, planning, and spatial construction processes which could not be explained by medical complications or general intellectual retardation. The intensity of visuospatial syndrome highly depends on cerebellar lesion side. Patients with left‐sided cerebellar lesions display more severe spatial problems than those with right‐sided cerebellar lesions. In conclusion, focal cerebellar lesions in children affect their visuospatial ability. The impairments profile is characterized by deficits in complex spatial processes such as visuospatial organization and mental rotation, requiring reconstruction of visual stimuli using the imagination, while elementary sensory analysis and perception as well as spatial processes requiring direct manipulation of objects are relatively better preserved. This pattern is analogous to the one previously observed in adult population and appears to be typical for cerebellar pathology in general, regardless of age.     

A comparison of children with epilepsy to an age- and IQ-matched control group on the Children's Memory Scale.

Past research has found that children with epilepsy exhibit decreased memory skills. In addition, some studies have found that children with epilepsy obtain significantly lower IQ scores than controls. In an effort to examine whether children with epilepsy have specific memory weaknesses versus global cognitive difficulties, the present study compared the performance of 62 children (age range = 6-16 years). Thirty-one children with epilepsy were compared to 31 age- and IQ-matched controls on the Children's Memory Scale (CMS) to determine whether differences in memory skills persist when IQ is matched. An independent t-test comparing index and scaled scores was performed. The results indicated that with the exception of the Word Pairs subtest (p < .01), children with epilepsy did not differ significantly on the CMS subtests when IQ was matched. This suggests that list-learning paradigms may be particularly sensitive to memory impairments in children with epilepsy and/or that children with epilepsy have more global cognitive impairments.     

A Comparison of Children with Epilepsy to an Age- and IQ-Matched Control Group on the Children's Memory Scale

Past research has found that children with epilepsy exhibit decreased memory skills. In addition, some studies have found that children with epilepsy obtain significantly lower IQ scores than controls. In an effort to examine whether children with epilepsy have specific memory weaknesses versus global cognitive difficulties, the present study compared the performance of 62 children (age range = 6–16 years). Thirty-one children with epilepsy were compared to 31 age- and IQ-matched controls on the Children's Memory Scale (CMS) to determine whether differences in memory skills persist when IQ is matched. An independent t-test comparing index and scaled scores was performed. The results indicated that with the exception of the Word Pairs subtest (p < .01), children with epilepsy did not differ significantly on the CMS subtests when IQ was matched. This suggests that list-learning paradigms may be particularly sensitive to memory impairments in children with epilepsy and/or that children with epilepsy have more global cognitive impairments.     

Fetal testosterone and autistic traits

Studies of amniotic testosterone in humans suggest that fetal testosterone (fT) is related to specific (but not all) sexually dimorphic aspects of cognition and behaviour. It has also been suggested that autism may be an extreme manifestation of some male‐typical traits, both in terms of cognition and neuroanatomy. In this paper, we examine the possibility of a link between autistic traits and fT levels measured in amniotic fluid during routine amniocentesis. Two instruments measuring number of autistic traits (the Childhood Autism Spectrum Test (CAST) and the Child Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ‐Child)) were completed by these women about their children (N=235), ages 6–10 years. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was measured in a subset of these children (N=74). fT levels were positively associated with higher scores on the CAST and AQ‐Child. This relationship was seen within sex as well as when the sexes were combined, suggesting this is an effect of fT rather than of sex per se. No relationships were found between overall IQ and the predictor variables, or between IQ and CAST or AQ‐Child. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that prenatal androgen exposure is related to children exhibiting more autistic traits. These results need to be followed up in a much larger sample to test if clinical cases of ASC have elevated fT.     

Individual and developmental differences in eyewitness recall and suggestibility in children with intellectual disabilities

This study examined two key issues: (1) whether there were developmental improvements in eyewitness memory performance for children with intellectual disabilities (ID); and (2) whether standardised measures of cognitive ability and suggestibility would relate to eyewitness recall and suggestibility. Children with ID and age‐matched controls (ages 8/9 and 12 years) watched a video of a crime and were asked a range of open‐ended and specific questions about the event in a subsequent interview. Free recall increased between the two age levels for children with and without ID, but at a faster rate for those without ID. For other question types, differences in performance between children with and without ID were far more marked than age differences. Standardised measures of interrogative suggestibility (Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale, GSS), verbal IQ, non‐verbal IQ, mental age and speed of information processing were related to eyewitness performance. In particular, higher eyewitness recall scores (free recall, non‐leading specific questions) were related to higher scores on the standardised GSS free recall measure; and higher eyewitness suggestibility scores were related to higher scores on the standardised GSS suggestibility measures. Mental age was a better predictor of performance on a range of eyewitness memory question types than verbal or non‐verbal IQ; and speed of information processing showed some relationships with eyewitness performance. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Verbal Communication,Nonverbal Communication,and Private Speech in Lower and Middle Socioeconomic Status Preschool Children

Three types of communication—verbal, nonverbal, and private speech—were investigated in 4- and 5-year-old children. Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) without IQ controlled and multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with IQ as a covariate were computed and followed by ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) on each of these types of communication. The ANOVAs and the ANCOVAs yielded the same conclusions. Results indicated that age and SES, but not sex, influence the use of the three communication types. From age 4 to age 5, private speech decreased for middle SES children and remained the same for lower SES children. Although lower SES children had more nonverbal communication at both age levels than middle SES children, nonverbal communication decreased for middle SES children and increased for lower SES children between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Both lower and middle SES groups increased in verbal communication between the two ages. The middle SES 4-year-olds used more verbal communication than their lower SES counterparts, and the difference was maintained at age 5. Although IQ is related to verbal communication, statistically controlling for the effects of IQ did not change the conclusions.     

Verbal communication, nonverbal communication, and private speech in lower and middle socioeconomic status preschool children.

Three types of communication--verbal, nonverbal, and private speech--were investigated in 4- and 5-year-old children. Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) without IQ controlled and multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with IQ as a covariate were computed and followed by ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) on each of these types of communication. The ANOVAs and the ANCOVAs yielded the same conclusions. Results indicated that age and SES, but not sex, influence the use of the three communication types. From age 4 to age 5, private speech decreased for middle SES children and remained the same for lower SES children. Although lower SES children had more nonverbal communication at both age levels than middle SES children, nonverbal communication decreased for middle SES children and increased for lower SES children between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Both lower and middle SES groups increased in verbal communication between the two ages. The middle SES 4-year-olds used more verbal communication than their lower SES counterparts, and the difference was maintained at age 5. Although IQ is related to verbal communication, statistically controlling for the effects of IQ did not change the conclusions.     

Reading and Spelling Disabilities in Children with and Without a History of Early Language Delay: A Neuropsychological and Linguistic Study

Language delay is a frequent antecedent of literacy problems, and both may be linked to phonological impairment. Studies on developmental dyslexia have led to contradictory results due to the heterogeneity of the pathological samples. The present study investigated whether Italian children with dyslexia showed selective phonological processing deficits or more widespread linguistic impairment and whether these deficits were associated with previous language delay. We chose 46 children with specific reading deficits and divided them into two groups based on whether they had language delay (LD) or not (NoLD). LD and NoLD children showed similar, severe deficits in reading and spelling decoding, but only LD children showed a moderate impairment in reading comprehension. LD children were more impaired in phonological working memory and phonological fluency, as well as in semantic fluency, grammatical comprehension, and verbal IQ. These findings indicate the presence of a moderate but widespread linguistic deficit (not limited to phonological processing) in a subset of dyslexic children with previous language delay that does not generalize to all children with reading difficulties.     

HUMAN FIGURE DRAWINGS BY NORMAL AND PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED CHILDREN: DRAW-A-PERSON TEST

N ielsen , H elle H. Human figure drawings by normal and physically handicapped children. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1961, 2 , 129–138.—Cerebral palsied children (spastic hemiplegia and paraplegia) were compared with normal children on nineteen formal variables of Draw-a-Person Test. Contrary to prediction, no differences were found between the experimental and matched control group, but one variable (Extremities lacking) was scored more frequently on hemiplegic than on paraplegic children. A comparison of the two groups showed that a significantly larger number of spastic drawings than normal drawings had a Goodenough IQ that was more than 10 points lower than their Binet IQ. A clinical psychologist, with much experience of figure drawings, sorted the drawings better than chance, only informed about age and IQ of the subject.     

Patterns of language impairment and behaviour in boys excluded from school

Background. High levels of behaviour problems are found in children with language impairments, but less is known about the level and nature of language impairment in children with severe behavioural problems. In particular, previous data suggest that at primary age, receptive impairments are more closely related to behaviour problems, whereas expressive language has a closer link at a later age. Aims. The study assessed expressive and receptive language problems in boys excluded from primary and secondary schools, to investigate the extent of impairment, the pattern of relations between age, receptive and expressive language, and relations with different aspects of behaviour. Sample. Nineteen boys (8–16 years of age) who had been excluded from school and 19 non‐excluded controls matched for age and school participated. Method. The sample was given assessments of: receptive language from the British Picture Vocabulary Scale (BPVS), and Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions (WOLD); expressive‐language evaluations from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC); auditory working memory evaluations from the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF); verbal reasoning (from the WISC); and non‐verbal IQ assessments Raven's matrices. Teachers completed behaviour ratings using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results. Excluded boys were significantly poorer than controls on expressive measures but similar on receptive language and non‐verbal IQ. Boys excluded from primary school were poorer than controls on auditory working memory. Expressive problems were linked with high levels of emotional symptoms. Conclusion. Many of the excluded boys had previously unidentified language problems, supporting the need for early recognition and assessment of language in boys with behaviour problems. Expressive problems in particular may be a risk factor.     

Stress in Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities

Both low parental IQ and stress have been shown to be associated with parenting difficulties and adverse child outcomes. We examined stress in parents with low IQ as a potential contributor to their documented parenting problems. Eighty-two mothers with intellectual disabilities (IQ < 80; labelled as having mental retardation) were given the Parenting Stress Index and they were found to be enduring very high levels of overall stress (95th percentile), stress related to child characteristics (95th percentile), and stress related to other life experiences (90th percentile) as compared to the normative test group. We divided the 82 mothers with intellectual disabilities into three groups depending on the age of their children. The mothers with school-age children reported significantly higher stress than parents of infant/toddler and preschool children. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that child age and living in a crowded environment were significant predictors of parenting stress. The results confirm that mothers with intellectual disabilities experience extreme stress that, together with other factors, may hinder adequate parenting.     

Academic growth curve trajectories from 1st grade to 12th grade: effects of multiple social risk factors and preschool child factors

This study examined the main and interactive effects of multiple social risk factors and the preschool child factors of IQ and mental health on students' academic trajectories from 1st grade to 12th grade. A multiple risk score summarizing 10 environmental risk factors was calculated at 4 years of age for 145 families. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that high-risk students had lower grades and more absences from 1st grade to 12th grade than did low-risk students. Significant interactions between risk and child factors for students' grade point average (GPA) revealed that child factors had significant effects only for low-risk students. Higher IQ and better mental health improved the GPA trajectories of low-risk children but did not influence the GPA trajectories of high-risk children.