Predictors of Parenting Stress for Abusive and Nonabusive Mothers

We examined a model of parenting stress for abusive mothers (n = 80) and nonabusive mothers (n = 86) using linear regression analyses. Predictors in the model included (a) the degree to which mothers were bothered by child misbehavior, (b) mothers’ general psychological functioning, and (c) observed child behavior during parent–child interactions. Whether abuse status moderated the relations between each predictor and parenting stress was also explored. Results indicated that mothers’ psychological functioning significantly predicted parenting stress; however, neither mothers’ intolerance for their children’s misbehavior nor observed child behavior were significant predictors of parenting stress in the regression model. A test of moderation revealed a significant interaction between parental intolerance and abuse status such that intolerance predicted parenting stress level only for abusive mothers. A comparison of correlations indicated that abusive mothers’ level of parenting stress was more closely related to their intolerance for child conduct problems than to the child’s behavior during play with their mothers. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for interventions to reduce parenting stress experienced by nonabusive and abusive mothers.     

Examination of the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory Discrepancy Hypothesis

ABSTRACT

This study examined the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) discrepancy hypothesis, which asserts that a discrepancy in score elevations on the ECBI Intensity and Problem Scales is related to problematic parenting styles. The Intensity Scale measures the frequency of child disruptive behavior, and the Problem Scale measures parent perception of their child's behavior as problematic. In a sample of 216 female caregivers of 3-to7-year-old children, the magnitude of discrepancy between T scores on the two ECBI scales was found to predict parental tolerance for child misbehavior. A one-standard-deviation difference in ECBI T scores identified (a) parents intolerant of their child's misbehavior when the Problem score was highest and (b) overly permissive parents when the Intensity score was highest.     

Mothers' attributions and expectancies regarding their conduct-disordered children

As an extension of Patterson's family coercion model, we hypothesized that parental attributions about the causes of child misbehavior and parental expectancies concerning the effectiveness of parenting techniques are involved in the establishment and maintenance of coercive exchanges. Mothers of 40 conduct-disordered children and 40 matched control children completed questionnaires measuring their attributions regarding the causes of their children's misbehavior and their expectations concerning the general and personal effectiveness of parenting techniques. Results supported the hypotheses: parents of conduct-disordered children were more likely to regard their children's misbehavior as intentional and to attribute it to stable, global causes beyond the parents' control. They also were less likely to see their own parenting as effective. We speculate that these parents hold cognitive stances of blame and helplessness that contribute to aversive parent behavior as well as to parent withdrawal in the face of escalating child aggressiveness.This article is based on a doctoral dissertation conducted by Anne Davison Baden while at Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, and was presented in part at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, August 1989.     

Coping and care-related stress in parents of a child with autism spectrum disorder

Background and Objectives: Parenting a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is challenging and can result in elevated levels of parenting stress. This study investigated the relationship between parent-ratings of their child’s ASD symptoms and two conceptually different measures of parenting stress: One specific to the ASD context and the other a general stress measure applicable to the broader caregiving context. Additionally, the influence of coping style on the relationship between child’s ASD symptoms and parenting stress was investigated.

Design and Methods: Using an internet survey, parents (N?=?178) caring for a child with ASD reported on coping strategies, completed two measures of parenting stress, and assessed their child’s ASD symptoms.

Results: Parenting stress increased with severity of the child’s ASD symptoms, but the strength of this relationship depended on whether a general or disorder-specific measure of parenting stress was used. Regression analyses indicated that some coping strategies moderated the impact of ASD symptom severity on the parent’s care-related stress, but moderation depended on how stress was conceptualized.

Conclusion: This study reinforces the importance of identifying the coping strategies of parents of children with developmental disorders, and highlights the consequences of using different conceptual approaches to measure parenting stress.     

Parent and child adjustment dual trajectories at the beginning of the COVID-19 syndemic

Children and their families have been significantly impacted by the unfolding of the COVID-19 syndemic. We sought to identify (1) groups of families with distinct profiles of joint trajectories of parental anxiety and child emotional distress and (2) protective and risk factors associated with these dual-trajectory profiles. A sample of 488 parents (65% White; 77% mothers) with 3- to 8-year-old children (M_Age = 5.04, SD_Age = 1.59) was followed from late March to early July in 2020. Survey data on parent (i.e., anxiety symptoms) and child (i.e., emotional distress) adjustment were collected at three time points. Using multivariate growth mixture modeling, we identified one group with low parental anxiety and child emotional distress (42.7%) and three other distinct groups with varying risk levels among parents and/or children. We also identified protective (e.g., positive parenting) and risk (e.g., child negative affect, negative parenting, perceived stress with racism) factors in predicting parent and child adjustment. It can be concluded that, overall, our sample (mostly middle- and high-socioeconomic status families) demonstrated family resilience amid COVID-19, consistent with prior disaster coping literature. At the same time, our findings also indicated the need to identify at-risk families and modifiable factors for post-disaster public health interventions.     

Assessing Dimensions of Parental Discipline

This study examines the advisability to distinguish dimensions of discipline, by evaluating the Dimensions of Discipline Inventory (DDI, Straus and Fauchier 2007) in a sample of Belgian undergraduate students (N = 371) who retrospectively reported on their mothers’ and fathers’ discipline behaviors aimed at correcting child misbehavior at age 10. First, confirmatory factor analyses showed that a model with nine factors fitted the data best, but also a model with four second-order factors was acceptable. Second, a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis with a Belgian and a U.S. sample (N = 633) provided additional evidence for the nine-factor structure. Correlations between DDI scales and other parenting related variables demonstrated meaningful relations. Additionally, some DDI subscales were associated with measures of current problem behavior. To conclude, the present study illustrated that it is both useful and possible to differentiate between discipline constructs.     

An Evaluation of a Parenting Class Curriculum for Parents of Young Children: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Parenting the Strong-Willed Child</Emphasis>

Young children with high levels of acting out behaviors present a challenge for families, caregivers, and the childcare system. The Parenting the Strong-Willed Child (PSWC) parenting class curriculum program is a 6-week, group based parent education program designed for parents of children with noncompliance problems (ages 2–8). The PSWC program was offered at no cost to parents enrolled in 8 Head Start centers, and parents were invited to participate in a program evaluation study. Seventy-one families enrolled in the study and completed at least one PSWC session. From pre- to post-test, parents reported significant improvements in both the frequency and intensity of child behavior problems. Parents also reported significant reductions in parenting stress, as well as improvements in their parenting behaviors, including a reduction in the use of lax discipline techniques and emotional reactivity in the context of discipline encounters. All improvements were sustained six months later. These preliminary results are encouraging, and point to the need for a more rigorous, controlled evaluation of the PSWC parenting class curriculum.     

Psychometric characteristics of the Parenting Scale in a Vietnamese sample

The Parenting Scale (PS) is a well‐established instrument for measuring discipline practices in Western populations. However, whether the PS is a valid and reliable measure in Eastern populations is not known. Thus, this study examined the psychometric properties of the PS in a sample of 433 Vietnamese parents of children aged 2–7 years. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) examined the commonly used Reitman et al.'s two‐factor and Rhoades and O'Leary's three‐factor solutions. Neither factor structure fit the data. An exploratory factor analysis identified a 12‐item one‐factor and 14‐item two‐factor solutions that overlapped substantially with established factor structures. The one‐factor solution reflected Lax/Overreactive parenting and the two‐factor solution consisted of Lax/Overreactive and Hostile subscales. The factor structures were confirmed via multigroup CFA. Internal consistencies were acceptable and ranged between .70 and .85. Each factor was positively associated with parent anger, dysfunctional cognitions about child behaviour, and externalising child behaviour problems. However, when entered simultaneously in a regression, Hostile discipline was not uniquely associated with child behaviour. Overall, results support the potential utility of the 12‐item one‐factor PS as a measure of dysfunctional parenting practices for Vietnamese parents.     

When a Non-resident Worker is a Non-resident Parent: Investigating the Family Impact of Fly-In,Fly-Out Work Practices in Australia

Non-resident work practices, which involve prolonged separations from family, long-distance commuting between home and remote work sites and long work hours across compressed rosters, are now commonplace in Australia. This study examined the impact of these work arrangements, often termed Fly-In/Fly-Out (FIFO), on children and families, and to identify family-related and employment-related factors that influence child and family outcomes. Anonymous online surveys containing measures of family and couple relationship quality, child behavioral and emotional adjustment, parenting and personal adjustment were completed by 232 partners of FIFO workers, 46 FIFO workers, and a comparison group of community parents (N = 294 mothers, N = 36 fathers). There were no differences between FIFO partners and community parents on family or couple relationship quality, parenting competence and child behavioral or emotional difficulties. FIFO partners reported higher levels of personal emotional problems and greater usage of harsh discipline practices than community mothers, while FIFO workers reported greater work to family conflict and alcohol use than community fathers. Regression analyses on the FIFO partners sample indicated that child and family functioning were best predicted by family factors, including harsh parenting and parental emotional adjustment. Implications of the findings for the design and provision of family-based support for FIFO families are discussed.     

What Latina Mothers Think of Evidence-Based Parenting Practices: A Qualitative Study of Treatment Acceptability

Parent training has great potential to alter the developmental trajectories of young Latino children with or at risk for behavior problems. However, traditional parent training programs may seem culturally irrelevant or inappropriate to Latino parents as they promote practices that are based on white, middle class standards. The current study of treatment acceptability used focus group and key informant interviewing methodology to investigate Latina mothers’ views on the causes of young children's misbehavior and the acceptability of evidence-based parenting strategies. The sample consisted of Spanish- and English-speaking Latina mothers of 3- to 6-year-olds recruited from day-care centers and preschools in New York City. Focus groups were conducted with 34 mothers, and key informant interviews with 5 mothers whose children had behavior problems. Results showed that the most commonly viewed causes of child misbehavior were child temperament, fighting in the home, and negative peer influence. Mothers found some evidence-based parenting strategies acceptable (e.g., the use of praise, social rewards) and others objectionable (e.g., selective ignoring in pubic situations, the elimination of spanking). For some strategies, there was little consensus on its acceptability (e.g., time-out). Taken together, results highlight the critical need for aligning parent and clinician goals at the outset of treatment, and of including a strong psychoeducational component in parent training programs because not all of its components are consistent with Latino cultural norms and beliefs.     

The Efficacy of a Group Triple P (Positive Parenting Program) for Chinese Parents with a Child Diagnosed with ADHD in Hong Kong: A Pilot Randomised Controlled Study

The present pilot study evaluated the efficacy of the Level 4 Group Positive Parenting Program (Triple P) with Hong Kong Chinese parents who had a child with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), using a randomised controlled trial design. It was a mixed research method involving quantitative measurement and semi‐structured focus group. Participants were randomly assigned to Triple P (n = 8) or control group (n = 9) and completed measures on child disruptive behaviours, sense of parenting efficacy and satisfaction, family stress and service needs. Outcomes were assessed at pre‐, post‐, and 3‐month follow‐up. A focus group was also conducted with the participants in the intervention group upon the programme completion. Compared with the control group, the intervention group reported a significant reduction in intensity of child behaviour problems and a significant increase in parenting efficacy at post‐intervention. The gain in reducing intensity of child disruptive behaviours maintained to 3 months after the completion of programme. Qualitative data suggested the three key elements to help both parents and children get positive changes: understanding and empathy, emotional control, and persistence in applying positive parenting strategies. The results partially provided preliminary evidence supporting the efficacy of Triple P in reducing child behaviour problems for ADHD in Chinese society.     

Strengthening parent well‐being at the work—family interface: A German trial on workplace Triple P

This study examines the efficacy of a parenting training (Workplace Triple P (WPTP)) especially designed for the needs of employed parents. The program aims to reduce stress at the work–parenting interface by targeting family risk and protective factors and assisting parents to manage competing work and family demands. Ninety‐seven part‐ and full‐time working parents (74 mothers and 23 fathers; intervention group: n = 42 parents; waitlist‐control group n = 55 parents) from multiple organizations and multiple occupations with children between 2 and 10 years were randomly assigned to an intervention and a waitlist‐control condition. After the training, parents from the intervention condition, compared to those from the waitlist‐control condition, reported a significant reduction in individual and work‐related stress. Additionally, they reported a significant reduction in dysfunctional parenting and significant higher levels of parental and occupational self‐efficacy. Within the intervention condition all effects were maintained at the 3‐ and 6‐month follow‐up examinations. The findings support the notion that WPTP promotes parental well‐being and reduces stress at the work–parenting interface. Given that strengthening parenting skills has the potential to strengthen work, strategies to implement WPTP in organizational resources and community‐based services are discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Treatment effectiveness of PMTO for children's behavior problems in Iceland: Assessing parenting practices in a randomized controlled trial

Findings are presented from an Icelandic randomized control trial (RCT) evaluating parent management training – Oregon model (PMTO?), a parent training intervention designed to improve parenting practices and reduce child behavior problems. In a prior report from this effectiveness study that focused on child outcomes, children in the PMTO condition showed greater reductions in reported child adjustment problems relative to the comparison group. The present report focuses on observed parenting practices as the targeted outcome, with risk by treatment moderators also tested. It was hypothesized that mothers assigned to the PMTO condition would show greater gains in pre‐post parenting practices relative to controls. The sample was recruited from five municipalities throughout Iceland and included 102 participating families of children with behavior problems. Cases were referred by community professionals and randomly assigned to either PMTO (n = 51) or community services usually offered (n = 51). Child age ranged from 5 to 12 years; 73% were boys. Contrary to expectations, findings showed no main effects for changes in maternal parenting. However, evaluation of risk by treatment moderators showed greater gains in parenting practices for mothers who increased in depressed mood within the PMTO group relative to their counterparts in the comparison group. This finding suggests that PMTO prevented the expected damaging effects of depression on maternal parenting. Failure to find hypothesized main effects may indicate that there were some unobserved factors regarding the measurement and a need to further adapt the global observational procedures to Icelandic culture.     

Do Historical Changes in Parent–Child Relationships Explain Increases in Youth Conduct Problems?

The coincidence of historical trends in youth antisocial behavior and change in family demographics has led to speculation of a causal link, possibly mediated by declining quality of parenting and parent–child relationships. No study to date has directly assessed whether and how parenting and parent–child relationships have changed. Two national samples of English adolescents aged 16–17 years in 1986 (N = 4,524 adolescents, 7,120 parents) and 2006 (N = 716 adolescents, 734 parents) were compared using identical questionnaire assessments. Youth-reported parental monitoring, expectations, and parent–child quality time increased between 1986 and 2006. Ratings of parental interest did not change. Parenting differences between affluent and disadvantaged families narrowed over time. There was thus little evidence of a decline in quality of parenting for the population as a whole or for disadvantaged subgroups. Parent-reported youth conduct problems showed a modest increase between 1986 and 2006. Findings suggested that the increase in youth conduct problems was largely unrelated to observed change in parent–child relationships.     

The Effects of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nobody’s Perfect</Emphasis> Program on Parenting Resourcefulness and Competency

We conducted an evaluation of Nobody’s Perfect Program involving 71 participants from Peterborough County, Canada. Prior to the program, parents completed demographic information, along with self-report measures assessing the types of interactions with their children, parent resourcefulness, knowledge and use of resources, parent competency and self-efficacy, which were completed again after the program and at a two month follow-up testing. In comparison to parents not earning certificates, parents earning certificates were younger and more likely to have completed previous parenting programs. As well, parents earning certificates demonstrated and maintained an increase in parenting resourcefulness, warm/positive parent-child interactions, sense of parenting competency and satisfaction, and use of community resources. The more sessions parents attended, the better their parenting resourcefulness and warm/positive parent-child interactions on completion and at follow-up, and the less their angry and punitive parenting at follow-up. Parents who had attended parenting programs before had higher parenting resourcefulness scores at entry. They left the program with increased levels of parenting resourcefulness, better parent-child interactions, and more effective child management skills. A number of recommendations are suggested to help facilitators of the program enhance service delivery and improve parental outcomes.     

Are Mindful Parents More Authoritative and Less Authoritarian? An Analysis of Clinic-Referred Mothers

Forty clinic-referred mothers completed questionnaires describing their children’s problems, the mothers’ parenting styles, and their everyday mindfulness. Psychometric analyses of the questionnaires showed mother reports to be internally consistent, except for one of the parenting style scales (i.e., permissive style). We dropped the scale and analyzed intercorrelations between the remaining two scales, the mindfulness measure and the child problem measure. Results showed the authoritative and authoritarian scales were not correlated, and each scale covaried with measures of mindfulness and child problems. Regression analyses revealed two pathways between mothers’ mindfulness and child problems. Both pathways showed parenting styles to mediate the connections between mothers’ mindfulness and their perceptions of child problems. We speculated on the nature of the mediating process.     

Parents’ Marital Status and Child Physical Abuse Potential: The Mediation of Depression Symptoms

Informed by a social interactional framework of stress and parenting, the aim of this study was to examine the mediating effect of depression symptoms on the association between parents’ marital status (married and divorced parents) and child physical abuse potential, in a Portuguese community sample. It was hypothesized that the possible observed differences between divorced and married parents in the child physical abuse potential would be explained by their depression symptoms. Parents (N?=?892) were assessed in their marital status, severity of depression symptoms and child physical abuse potential. Results showed that, when compared with married parents, divorced parents had higher child physical abuse potential. However, parents’ depression symptomatology was found as a mediator of the effect of marital status differences on child physical abuse potential. The influence of the status of divorced parents on the increase of child physical abuse potential was explained by the increase of the parents’ depression symptoms. This finding suggested that parents’ divorced status had no longer an effect on child physical abuse potential when parents’ depression symptomatology was tested as a mediator variable. The present mediation model explained 47?% of the variability in the child physical abuse potential score. Practical implications of these findings for prevention and psychological intervention are also discussed.     

Intergenerational transmission of maternal and paternal parenting beliefs: The moderating role of interaction quality

The finding that values, attitudes, and behaviour can be transmitted across generations is long standing. However, the role of fathers in this process has been underinvestigated. Furthermore, many researchers have not tested moderation effects. We extended the literature by investigating maternal and paternal transmission of harsh parenting beliefs to their children 23 years later. Furthermore, we examined the moderating role of interaction quality and included gender and socioeconomic status as control variables. Our data were collected in a unique longitudinal study of 128 families across 23 years. We found high positive associations between the harsh parenting beliefs of parents and their adult children, but only the mother–child transmissions were moderated by interaction quality. Mothers pass on low levels as well as high levels of harsh parenting beliefs to their children if their interaction quality is poor. These findings highlight the importance of investigating intergenerational transmission in both mother–child and father–child dyads.     

The Effect of Behavioral Family Intervention on Knowledge of Effective Parenting Strategies

There is a paucity of research considering the effect of behavioral family intervention (BFI) on parenting knowledge and the relative importance of both knowledge and parent confidence in reducing parenting dysfunction and problematic child behavior is unclear. In this study ninety-one parents (44 mothers, 47 fathers) of children aged 2–10?years completed an evidence-based BFI and were assessed at pre and post-intervention on knowledge of effective parenting strategies, parenting confidence, parent dysfunction, and reported intensity of externalised child behavior. Results showed that at pre-intervention parents higher in education (N?=?57) demonstrated greater knowledge than those lower in education (N?=?34). Relative to baseline, parents in both groups significantly improved their knowledge and confidence, reduced their dysfunction and reported less externalised child behavior. Effect sizes for the latter two variables were similar for both groups, however for parents higher in education the effect for confidence was larger than knowledge. Change in level of dysfunction explained the largest amount of unique variance in change to externalised child behavior. Results suggest that for optimal outcomes for parenting and child behavior management more knowledgeable parents may benefit from interventions that focus on practice and consolidation of already learned skills in order to increase confidence whereas for less knowledgeable parents the teaching of new skills and strategies, alongside increasing confidence, are important.     

Interactions Between Maternal Parenting and Children’s Early Disruptive Behavior: Bidirectional Associations across the Transition from Preschool to School Entry

This study was a prospective 2-year longitudinal investigation of associations between negative maternal parenting and disruptive child behavior across the preschool to school transition. Our main goals were to 1) determine the direction of association between early maternal negativity and child disruptive behaviors across this important developmental transition and 2) examine whether there would be different patterns of associations for boys and girls. Participants were 235 children (111 girls; T1; M = 37.7 months, T2; M = 63.4 months) and their mothers and teachers. Observational and multi-informant ratings of child disruptive behavior showed differential patterns of stability and associations with measures of parenting risk. Results indicated bidirectional and interactive contributions of externalizing behavior and negative parenting across time. Results also indicated that risk mechanisms operate similarly for both sexes. Findings support transactional models of disruptive child behavior that highlight the joint contributions of parents and children.