Action‐Based Model of Dissonance: A Review of Behavioral,Anterior Cingulate,and Prefrontal Cortical Mechanisms

Research and theoretical developments on the theory of cognitive dissonance are reviewed. After this critical review, we present the action‐based model of dissonance, which accepts the original theory's proposal that a sufficient cognitive inconsistency causes dissonance and extends the original theory by proposing why cognitive inconsistency prompts dissonance. Finally, we present results from behavioral and physiological experiments examining predictions derived from the action‐based model. In particular, this evidence converges with recent neuroscience evidence in suggesting that the anterior cingulate cortex and left prefrontal cortical region are involved in conflict detection and resolution, respectively.     

Dissonance and abstraction: Cognitive conflict leads to higher level of construal

This study investigated the effects of cognitive conflict on abstract thinking. According to action‐identification theory, an ambiguous and unfamiliar situation might propel an individual to a more abstract mindset. Based on this premise, cognitive conflict was hypothesized to put people in an abstract mindset. The induced compliance paradigm, in which participants are asked to write a counter‐attitudinal essay under either low choice (producing little dissonance) or high choice (producing more dissonance), was employed. Results showed that an abstract mindset was in fact activated in the induced compliance paradigm, and this effect was more pronounced for participants having a more concrete mindset to begin with. The results suggest that the experience of cognitive conflict is closely related to increased abstraction.     

Willing and able to fake emotions: a closer examination of the link between emotional dissonance and employee well-being

Emotional dissonance resulting from an employee's emotional labor is usually considered to lead to negative employee outcomes, such as job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Drawing on Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory, we argue that the relationship between service employees' surface acting and job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion is moderated by 2 aspects of a service worker's self-concept: the importance of displaying authentic emotions (reflecting the self-concept's self-liking dimension) and the employee's self-efficacy when faking emotions (reflecting the self-competence dimension). A survey of 528 frontline employees from a wide variety of service jobs provides support for the moderating role of both self-concept dimensions, which moderate 3 out of 4 relationships. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed from the perspectives of cognitive dissonance and emotional labor theories.     

Kognitive Dissonanz nach Entscheidungen und psychische Erkrankungen

Building upon Grawe’s consistency theory the target of this study was to examine if cognitive dissonance has an influence on mental disorders. More precisely, whether post-decisional cognitive dissonance (1) is more pronounced in patients with mental disorders and (2) whether it correlates with symptom burden. Obsessive-compulsive disorder patients (OCD; n?=?15), depressive patients (n?=?20) and controls (n?=?42) completed a post-decisional cognitive dissonance scale as well as a scale assessing their respective symptom burden. Solely OCD patients showed heightened cognitive dissonance compared to controls (p?=?0.019). Among depressive patients, however, a very high correlation was found to exist between symptom burden and cognitive dissonance (r?=?0.70). Therefore, OCD seems to be related to increased cognitive dissonance which supports the assumption that cognitive dissonance plays a role in this mental disorder.     

Cognitive Dissonance in Groups

Cognitive dissonance theory, as originally set out by Festinger ( 1957 ), described dissonance as an intraindividual phenomenon in a social context. Much of the research on dissonance has focused on the intraindividual aspect of dissonance. The limited research that has looked at cognitive dissonance in groups has done so from a range of different perspectives. These perspectives seem to result in contradictory predictions about the role of social information on the arousal and reduction of cognitive dissonance, despite generally sharing a model of the social self based on, or consistent with, social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978 ). Thinking about how these group‐based models of cognitive dissonance fit together may better illuminate the nature of dissonance and also suggest productive avenues for research to integrate these various perspectives on dissonance.     

Dealing with dissonance: A review of cognitive dissonance reduction

This article provides an overview of research about cognitive dissonance reduction. Over the past 60 years, researchers have produced significant theoretical and empirical contributions from cognitive dissonance theory. One of the challenges that remains for dissonance theory going forward is a deeper examination of the process of dissonance reduction. I describe the various reduction strategies that have been investigated followed by models that have been proposed to understand an individual's use of dissonance reduction strategies. I then highlight a series of factors that can help us move research about dissonance reduction forward. These factors can be broadly subsumed under characteristics of the reduction mode and characteristics of the dissonance arousal. I conclude by suggesting that examination of these factors in studies that present multiple reduction modes to participants will provide a better understanding of the process of dissonance reduction.     

Some prior considerations about dissonance to understand its reduction: Comment on McGrath (2017)

In a recent contribution to this journal, McGrath (2017) provided an overview of the reduction process of cognitive dissonance theory. To discuss the reduction strategy, she reviewed relevant studies and highlighted the means to reduce dissonance as well as factors that promote their use. In the present paper, we would like to raise some points which have not been considered by McGrath. First, we stress the historical development of the theory that orientated the study of attitude change as the major means of reduction. Second, we raise the issue of the term “dissonance” and the different conceptions about its reduction. Last, on the strength of published data, we insist on resistance to change as a central and essential factor to predict the reduction strategy. We consider that these elements, in addition to McGrath's valuable contribution, provide a comprehensive understanding of the current view of the dissonance reduction process.     

道德伪善的心理学研究述评

道德伪善(moral hypocrisy)是对道德知行脱离进行反思的产物, 反映了道德心理学和社会认知领域的最新进展。从社会学习理论、认知失调理论、社会影响理论和双加工理论四个理论来对道德伪善产生缘由进行了探讨, 并在此基础上对其产生机制进行了阐述。为了避免道德伪善的消极效应与不良后果, 进一步从个体和群体两个层面来探讨了道德伪善的影响因素。考虑到现实生活中过分强调道德伪善的负面价值, 研究积极地审视了道德伪善在诱导认知失调、塑造和培养亲社会行为以及促进组织发展等领域的应用。未来研究需在现有研究基础上, 进一步借鉴反应时和内隐测量技术来对道德伪善进行本土化和跨文化研究, 并对其应用性开展更深入和系统的探讨。     

Twenty five on: Yet another version of cognitive dissonance theory?

The aim of this article is to highlight, 25 years on, the innovations of Festinger's theory of dissonance as regards its conception of cognitive functioning. Analysis of the dissonance ratio, on the basis of which Festinger evaluated the total amount of dissonance D/(D + C) gives rise to three propositions: (1) The total amount of dissonance is evaluated on the basis of a particular cognition G. (2) This cognition is neither the denominator, nor the numerator of the dissonance ratio; it is the cognitive expression of an effective conduct. (3) No presupposition is made concerning possible consonance or dissonance-relations between cognitions C and D. Thus reduction in dissonance is not presented as a process that always orients cognitive activity toward greater consistency, but as a rationalization of conduct which may adapt to an increase in certain inconsistencies, and even generate them. This new insight into Festinger's theory may be thought of as a new version that is quite distinct, both from earlier revisions of the theory, and from the various theories of cognitive consistency. It is hoped, moreover, that it will provoke reflection concerning the current orientatlons of cognitivism in social psychology.     

Forgiveness of Self and Others and Emotional Empathy

Abstract

Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory maintains that individuals enhance their opinions of decisions after they have made them. The present experiment demonstrated this postdecision dissonance enhancement effect by using a no-decision control group to test whether predecision moderation (i.e., impression management) or postdecision enhancement (i.e., dissonance reduction) occurred. Male and female subjects (N = 62) were approached in a shopping mall and asked to estimate their chances of winning a “gumball guess” lottery-type game. In clear support of cognitive dissonance theory, those giving their responses immediately after they had taken part in the gumball guess gave significantly higher estimates of winning than those asked just before they guessed or those in the control group.     

Exploring generative dissonance: Inten[s]ional states and relational interruptions

There is great potential to mine social psychological theory and explore the human experience of thoughts in tension. The work in cognitive dissonance reveals how cognitive inconsistencies and the consequential aversive psychological state of dissonance may affect one's understanding of the relations between self and other, creating openings for more inclusive social boundaries. The phenomenon of the “tension state” has potential links to notions of the dialogic space, reframing cognitions and altering social relations toward new interpretations of social givens. I discuss cognitive and relational dissonance in a case study on school desegregation and raise the possibility that desegregated school settings might create opportunities for cognitive openings, new understandings, and space for solidarity. Linking the long and rich theoretical history of cognitive dissonance to critical social theory, the paper advances a related and new concept of generative dissonance. This construct underscores the interruption of cognitive cohesion and the production of new ways of thinking and new social relations. These forms of cognitive and relational rupture generate openings with embodied relational implications, creating the possibility for reframing social problems and reconfiguring human relations.     

Selective exposure to information and cognitive dissonance

Despite numerous attempts, the selective exposure prediction of Festinger's (A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1957) theory of cognitive dissonance has not been consistently demonstrated. In previous studies, this failure can be attributed to design deficiencies, and other related problems. The present study manipulated dissonance by having subjects write a counterattitudinal essay under conditions of high or low choice. Information in the form of pamphlets and discussion groups was offered to the subjects such that they could choose information that was consonant and dissonant with the decision to write the essay. The information was offered either before or after an attitude measure on the essay topic, as the attitude measure could also be a source of dissonance reduction. The results indicate that the high choice manipulation yielded greater attitude change than the low-choice manipulation. High-choice subjects desired consonant information more and dissonant information less than did low-choice subjects. This effect was found for both measures of information desire (pamphlets and discussion groups). Low-choice subjects who received the attitude questionnaire before the information measures wanted information more than if offered the information before the attitude questionnaire, implying a sensitizing effect produced by the attitude questionnaire for the low-choice subjects. The various effects are discussed as providing support for predictions from Festinger's dissonance theory.     

Selective exposure and dissonance after decisions

Well-known literature reviews from the 1960s question whether cognitive dissonance underlies experimental participants' selective exposure of themselves to consonant messages and avoidance of dissonant ones. A meta-analytic review of 16 studies published from 1956 to 1996 and involving 1,922 total participants shows that experimental tests consistently support the supposition that dissonance is associated with selective exposure (r = .22, p < .001). Statistical power exceeded .99. Advances in statistical methodology and increased attention to selecting appropriate tests of dissonance theory were essential to finally resolving this question.     

Dissonance-induced false memories: Evidence from a free-choice paradigm

People often misremember the past as consistent with the present. Recent research using an induced-compliance paradigm has revealed that cognitive dissonance is one mechanism that can underlie this memory distortion. We sought to replicate and extend this finding using a free-choice paradigm: Participants made either an easy or a difficult choice between two smartphones and, either immediately or two days later, reported their memories for their decision experience. Participants who made a difficult decision produced the spread-of-alternatives effect expected by dissonance theory, and they were also more likely than those in the easy conditions to misremember their initial decision more favourably than they had initially rated it. Overall, our findings replicate the effect of dissonance on memory distortion and, further, show that the effect generalises to other dissonance-inducing situations.     

The relationship between cognitive dissonance and helping behavior

An experiment was conducted to study the relationship between cognitive dissonance and helping behavior. A counterattitudinal procedure was employed to arouse dissonance. For half of the participants, an experimental confederate entered the room and elicited an opportunity for them to offer help. In this situation, fewer subjects in the dissonance condition offered help than subjects in the no‐dissonance condition. The least helping occurred among dissonance subjects with the highest level of commitment to the counterattitudinal task. Those with a medium level of commitment offered significantly more help. Despite the fact that results in line with Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory (subjects' attitudinal change) were obtained in the no‐helping situation, in helping situations, dissonance subjects who offered help presented significantly less attitude change than those who did not offer it. This was considered to be a result of helpfulness reducing dissonance arousal.     

Motivational basis of dissonance: the singular role of behavioral consequences

This article provides the first empirical test of the idea that discrepancy is not needed in order to arouse cognitive dissonance. Dissonance was aroused when Ss felt responsible for some aversive consequence, regardless of whether their behavior was consistent (writing a proattitudinal essay) or inconsistent (a counterattitudinal essay) with beliefs. The data demonstrate that in both situations, dissonance is aroused. This result, based on the dissonance motivation model of Cooper and Fazio (1984), strongly suggests that the motivational basis for dissonance is the felt responsibility for aversive consequences. The theoretical implications of this outlook are explored, including a discussion of the many ways that it expands the applicability of dissonance theory.     

Enfreindre sans craindre : tolérance à la dissonance dans le paradigme de l’hypocrisie induite

Induced-hypocrisy is directly derived from cognitive dissonance theory. This paradigm involves the combination of two factors: commitment factor, in which the individual advocates a pro-normative position and mindful factor in which the past transgressions are made salient. This combination arouses dissonance, which is usually reduced by changing the behavior in line with the normative advocacy. We used the induced-hypocrisy paradigm to test one of the original hypotheses of dissonance: it exists a tolerance towards dissonance. This tolerance was operationalized via the frequency of self-reported transgressions (e.g. familiarization with transgressions). Participants were made hypocritical; then they were given the opportunity to reduce dissonance through trivialization scale. According to the hypothesis, less frequent were the transgressions and higher was their trivialization.     

Social inequality and the reduction of ideological dissonance on behalf of the system: evidence of enhanced system justification among the disadvantaged

According to system justification theory, people are motivated to preserve the belief that existing social arrangements are fair, legitimate, justifiable, and necessary. The strongest form of this hypothesis, which draws on the logic of cognitive dissonance theory, holds that people who are most disadvantaged by the status quo would have the greatest psychological need to reduce ideological dissonance and would therefore be most likely to support, defend, and justify existing social systems, authorities, and outcomes. Variations on this hypothesis were tested in five US national survey studies. We found that (a) low‐income respondents and African Americans were more likely than others to support limitations on the rights of citizens and media representatives to criticize the government; (b) low‐income Latinos were more likely to trust in US government officials and to believe that ‘the government is run for the benefit of all’ than were high‐income Latinos; (c) low‐income respondents were more likely than high‐income respondents to believe that large differences in pay are necessary to foster motivation and effort; (d) Southerners in the USA were more likely to endorse meritocratic belief systems than were Northerners and poor and Southern African Americans were more likely to subscribe to meritocratic ideologies than were African Americans who were more affluent and from the North; (e) low‐income respondents and African Americans were more likely than others to believe that economic inequality is legitimate and necessary; and (f) stronger endorsement of meritocratic ideology was associated with greater satisfaction with one's own economic situation. Taken together, these findings are consistent with the dissonance‐based argument that people who suffer the most from a given state of affairs are paradoxically the least likely to question, challenge, reject, or change it. Implications for theories of system justification, cognitive dissonance, and social change are also discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive Dissonance and Post-Decision Attitude Change in Six Presidential Elections

Data from the National Election Studies were examined in an effort to isolate cognitive dissonance of two kinds: dissonance arising from a behavioral commitment in the form of voting, and dissonance arising from inconsistencies associated with having supported the losing candidate. Feeling thermometer ratings of the two principal presidential candidates obtained before and immediately after six elections (1972, 1980, 1984, 1988, 1992, and 1996) were analyzed. Regression estimates supported a dissonance reduction explanation of observed attitude changes. Voters, as compared to nonvoters, tended to increase the evaluative distance between candidates after an election, whereas supporters of the losing candidate were more likely than supporters of the winning candidate to decrease such evaluative distances. An additional examination of voters yielded results consistent with dissonance theory: After the election, respondents reporting favorable evaluations of both candidates (a difficult choice) tended to spread comparative candidate evaluations compared to respondents who were favorable toward only one candidate (an easy choice). The results both support and cast doubt on prior studies.     

Biased predecision processing

Decision makers conduct biased predecision processing when they restructure their mental representation of the decision environment to favor one alternative before making their choice. The question of whether biased predecision processing occurs has been controversial since L. Festinger (1957) maintained that it does not occur. The author reviews relevant research in sections on theories of cognitive dissonance, decision conflict, choice certainty, action control, action phases, dominance structuring, differentiation and consolidation, constructive processing, motivated reasoning, and groupthink. Some studies did not find evidence of biased predecision processing, but many did. In the Discussion section, the moderators are summarized and used to assess the theories.