Children's beliefs about substance use: an examination of age differences in implicit and explicit cognitive precursors of substance use initiation.

Cognitive models conceptualize attitudes and beliefs about substance use (SU) as proximal mediators of a variety of risk and protective factors for SU. Researchers have distinguished implicit and explicit cognition, but limited research has examined this distinction in the early stages of SU. The authors' goal was to examine age differences in implicit and explicit SU cognitions to clarify proximal cognitive processes that may be involved in early SU. Alcohol- and cigarette-naive children (N=76; 69.7% male; M age=11.8 years) completed the laboratory-based experiment. Likelihood ratings of costs and benefits of use assessed explicit cognitions, and a priming task assessed implicit cognitions. Regardless of age, children perceived costs of drinking alcohol and smoking as more likely than benefits. This discrepancy was smaller for older children, although this age difference was weaker for costs and benefits of cigarette use. Strong positive implicit alcohol use cognitions were apparent regardless of age. However, age differences were found for implicit cigarette use cognition. Older children were more positive about cigarette use. Findings suggest the importance of distinguishing explicit and implicit cognition for etiological models of early SU.     

Attention as a mediating variable in the dynamics of bimanual coordination

The influence of focal attention on the coordination dynamics in a bimanual circle drawing task was investigated. Six right-handed and seven left-handed subjects performed bimanual circling movements, in two modes of coordination, symmetrical or asymmetrical. The frequency of movement was scaled by an auditory metronome from 1.50 Hz to 3.00 Hz in 7 steps. On each trial, subjects were required to attend either to the dominant hand, to a neutral position, or to the nondominant hand.The uniformity of the relative tangential angle was lower in asymmetrical than in symmetrical conditions, but was not influenced by the direction of attention. In the asymmetrical mode, shifts in RTA relations, suggestive of loss of stability, were evident as the movement frequency was increased. Typically, these shifts were mediated by distortions of the trajectory of the nondominant limb. When the nondominant hand was the focus of attention, movements of this hand were more circular, and temporal variability was reduced, at the cost of a greater deviation from the target frequency. Movements of the dominant hand were not affected by the direction of attention. The findings show that although directed attention acts to modify the coordination dynamics, it does so primarily at the level of the individual hands, rather then in terms of the relation between them.     

From beliefs to behavior: the mediating role of hostile response selection in predicting aggression

This study evaluated the complementary roles that aggressive normative beliefs and hostile response selections play in predicting adolescents' aggressive behavior. Self‐, peer‐, and teacher‐reported data were collected from 2003 young adolescents from a variety of ethnic backgrounds (Black, Latino, Asian, White) during the fall of their sixth grade year to test the hypothesis that adolescents' hostile response selections mediate the association between their normative beliefs and aggressive reputations among their peers and teachers. Structural equation modeling analyses supported our hypothesis, and the model was found to be consistent across both gender and ethnicity. The results suggest that even though gender and ethnic differences in average levels of aggressive cognitions and behavior exist, the general process linking cognitions and behaviors is the same for all young adolescents. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–20, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Life events and substance use among adolescents: mediating effects of perceived loss of control and meaninglessness in life

Throughout history, alcohol and other drugs have been used to provide relief in times of stress and frustration. Research has confirmed this association between disruptive life change events and substance use. It was hypothesized that two psychological constructs facilitate and mediate this relation between stress and substance use. Uncontrollable stress (negative life change events) was assumed to create a sense of loss of control, which in turn engendered a decreased level of meaning in life. This meaninglessness in life, experienced as distressful and uncomfortable, is then treated or medicated with various drug substances. This theoretical sequential model was tested in two separate studies with independent samples of adolescents (one sample collected by the Rutgers University and the other collected by the University of California, Los Angeles [UCLA]) using latent variable structural models. The Rutgers sample was cross-sectional, whereas the UCLA sample provided longitudinal data. Results supported the theoretical hypothesis that Perceived Loss of Control and Meaninglessness mediate the relation between Uncontrollable Stress and Substance Use. In the Rutgers data, the association between stress and drug use was clearly accounted for by the mediating constructs; in other words, no direct path was necessary to explain the relation between stress and general drug use. However, in the UCLA data there remained a direct influence of Uncontrollable Stress on Substance Use after accounting for the significant impact of the mediating constructs. Five other competing models were tested; four were rejected empirically, and the other was accepted, although it was less theoretically based than the mediational model.     

Gender and health behaviours of hypertensive patients: mediating role of control beliefs

Previous studies have reported gender differences in patients’ health behaviours but few studied hypertensive patients. The potential underlying factors that may mediate gender influences on health behaviours is also a more critical area worthy of investigation. This study examined health locus of control (HLC) as a pathway of gender effects on health behaviours of hypertensive patients. The Multidimensional HLC Scale (Form C) and Wellness behaviour subscale of Health Behaviour Checklist were completed by 400 hypertensive outpatients in two Nigerian hospitals: Enugu State University Teaching Hospital, Park Lane, Enugu, and Bishop Shanahan Specialist Hospital, Nsukka. Hierarchical multiple regression results showed that gender significantly predicted health behaviours. Gender also significantly predicted internal HLC, chance HLC, and other people HLC, but did not predict doctor HLC. The association between gender and health behaviours was fully mediated by internal HLC, chance HLC and other people HLC. Understanding the explanatory mechanisms linking socio-demographic factors and health behaviours is considered of great importance for future research and healthcare intervention.     

Examining attitudes,beliefs, and intentions regarding the use of exercise as punishment in physical education and sport: an application of the theory of reasoned action

Although the use of exercise as punishment appears to be pervasive among physical education teachers and coaches, it has not been systematically examined. The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences, attitudes, intentions, and beliefs of college physical education majors regarding the use of exercise as punishment, using the framework of the theory of reasoned action. Surveys were completed by 345 students enrolled in 35 physical education classes. More than 90% of the study participants reported that their coaches used exercise as punishment, and 43% indicated their physical education teachers used exercise to punish or manage behavior. The constructs of the theory of reasoned action explained nearly 70% of the variance in participants' intentions to use exercise as punishment.     

Psychopathology as risk for adolescent substance use disorders: a developmental psychopathology perspective.

Examines several issues on psychiatric diagnoses as risk factors for adolescent drug use and substance use disorders. The articles in this special section are discussed in terms of dynamic models of risk and protective factors, stages of research needed for establishing causal mechanisms in the etiology of drug use disorders, conceptualizing drug use and abuse in the context of the developmental organization of the individual, equifinality and multifinality in developmental pathways to drug use and abuse, and issues in conceptualizing drug use problems as mental disorders. Future directions for research on the etiology of problem drug use, guided by principles of developmental psychopathology and prevention science, are provided.     

The relationship between cognitive function and life space: the potential role of personal control beliefs

We examined the relationship of cognitive and functional measures with life space (a measure of spatial mobility examining extent of movement within a person's environment) in older adults, and investigated the potential moderating role of personal control beliefs. Internal control beliefs reflect feelings of competence and personal agency, while attributions of external control imply a more dependent or passive point of view. Participants were 2,737 adults from the ACTIVE study, with a mean age of 74 years. Females comprised 76% of the sample, with good minority representation (27% African American). In multiple regression models controlling for demographic factors, cognitive domains of memory, reasoning, and processing speed were significantly associated with life space (p < .001 for each), and reasoning ability appeared most predictive (B = .117). Measures of everyday function also showed significant associations with life space, independent from the traditional cognitive measures. Interactions between cognitive function and control beliefs were tested, and external control beliefs moderated the relationship between memory and life space, with the combination of high objective memory and low external control beliefs yielding the highest life space (t = -2.07; p = .039). In conclusion, older adults with better cognitive function have a larger overall life space. Performance-based measures of everyday function may also be useful in assessing the functional outcome of life space. Additionally, subjective external control beliefs may moderate the relationship between objective cognitive function and life space. Future studies examining the relationships between these factors longitudinally appear worthwhile to further elucidate the interrelationships of cognitive function, control beliefs, and life space.     

Exploring the role of personal normative beliefs in the theory of reasoned action: The problem of discriminating between alternative path models

In the 1967 version of Fishbein's model of the attitude-behaviour relationship a distinction was drawn between personal and social normative beliefs. Personal normative beliefs were later removed from the model on the grounds that they act as an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that the existing literature does not support this hypothesis and data is presented which indicates that personal normative beliefs are not an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that personal normative beliefs can be reconceptualized as measuring a person's ideal behavioural intention; a variable which mediates the relationship between attitudes, subjective norms and intentions, Evidence is presented which supports this hypothesis, but it is further demonstrated that an alternative model can be fitted to the present data. It is argued that it is impossible to discriminate between these alternative models on the basis of path analytic techniques, and the implications that this finding has for attitude research are discussed.     

Maladaptive perfectionism as an intervening variable between psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms: a three-wave longitudinal study.

Maladaptive perfectionism has been postulated as an intervening variable between psychologically controlling parenting and adolescent internalizing problems. Although this hypothesis has been confirmed in a number of cross-sectional studies, it has not yet been examined from a longitudinal perspective. Findings from this 3-wave longitudinal study show that parental psychological control (as indexed by parent and adolescent reports) at age 15 years predicted increased levels of maladaptive perfectionism 1 year later. Maladaptive perfectionism, in turn, predicted increased levels of adolescent depressive symptoms again 1 year later and acted as a significant intervening variable between parental psychological control at Time 1 and depressive symptoms at Time 3. Multigroup analyses show that the model tested was consistent across gender for paternal psychological control but not for maternal psychological control. Suggestions for future research are outlined.     

Mistakes as a social construct: an historical approach.

The Institute of Medicine (IOM) published To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System in November 1999. The report focused public attention on the errors that occur within the medical system that cause death and harm to patients. It outlined a series of changes for health care that are aimed at reducing these errors by 50 percent over the next five years.This paper examines the problem of medical mistakes historically. It documents how legal, scientific, and medical trends during the years 1890-1934 intersected to effect the reporting of mistakes in the subspecialty of neurosurgery. At the start of this timeframe, mistakes were reported openly in journal articles as an educational tool. By its end, however, mistakes had gone "underground" and were buried amid a more objective, scientific reporting system. Using this historical perspective as a baseline, the paper concludes by re-examining the IOM's suggestions for change and comments on what they mean for the culture of medicine.     

The behavior-therapeutic use of contingency contracting to control an adult behavior problem: weight control

Items considered valuable by the subject and originally his property were surrendered to the researcher and incorporated into a contractual system of prearranged contingencies. Each subject signed a legal contract that prescribed the manner in which he could earn back or permanently lose his valuables. Specifically, a portion of each subject's valuables were returned to him contingent upon both specified weight losses and losing weight at an agreed-upon rate. Furthermore, each subject permanently lost a portion of his valuables contingent upon both specified weight gains and losing weight at a rate below the agreed-upon rate. Single-subject reversal designs were employed to determine the effectiveness of the treatment contingencies. This study demonstrated that items considered valuable by the subject and originally his property, could be used successfully to modify the subject's weight when these items were used procedurally both as reinforcing and as punishing consequences. In addition, a systematic analysis of the contingencies indicated that punishing or aversive consequences presumably were a necessary component of the treatment procedure.     

Psychiatric and substance use disorders as risk factors for attempted suicide among adolescents: a case control study

The objective of this research was to test substance-related and non-substance-related psychiatric disorders as predictors of attempted suicide among adolescents. Ninety-six psychiatrically disordered suicide attempters were matched one-to-one to 96 psychiatrically disordered non-attempters on age, race, gender, and the presence/absence of major depression. Conditional logistic regression was used to test psychiatric risk factors for their power to predict attempted suicide among adolescents. Bipolar disorder, cocaine use disorders, and conduct disorder were found to be predictive of attempted suicide in univariate testing. Bipolar disorder, inhalant use disorders, cocaine use disorders, and hallucinogen use disorders were found to be predictive of attempted suicide, after adjusting for all other covariates. Loglinear analyses revealed high odds ratios associated with the comorbidities of alcohol use disorder with conduct disorder and drug use disorders with conduct disorder in both groups. Higher rates of cocaine use disorder/conduct disorder, hallucinogen use disorder/conduct disorder, and alcohol use disorder/ conduct disorder were found among suicide attempters. Evaluation of these particular comorbid conditions should be part of the adolescent suicide risk assessment.