Computational Theory and Cognition in Representational Momentum and Related Types of Displacement: A reply to Kerzel

Kerzel’s (2006) commentary on Hubbard’s (2005) re-view of the literature on representational momentum and related types of displacement highlights differences of interpretation between Hubbard and Kerzel, but also contains mischaracterizations of Hubbard’s position. In this reply to Kerzel, these differences and mischaracterizations are addressed. Issues are briefly considered that involve the following: whether displacement involves multiple processes; the Marr (1982) framework; the relationship of displacement to internalized physics, goodness of perceived motion, apparent motion, and oculomotor overshoot; generalization from flashed objects to moving objects; necessary and sufficient criteria for displacement; and whether the existence of auditory representational momentum provides evidence for a supramodal account of displacement.     

Verbal and Spatial Short-term Memory: Two Sources of Developmental Evidence Consistent with Common Underlying Processes

Developments in serial short-term memory (STM) typically have been assessed using verbal items, and mechanisms of development unique to the verbal system have been postulated. Here we review two studies of the development of spatial STM. The first (Chuah & Maybery, 1999) showed that variance in spatial span was partitioned among a set of predictor variables in a configuration very similar to that found for verbal span. The second (Maybery & Chuah, 1999) examined the timing of recall for spatial sequences. Intervals between touches as children recalled spatial sequences showed comparable effects to those reported for the oral recall of verbal sequences. Discussion focuses on processes that could serve both verbal and spatial memory and mediate span development.     

Visual impressions of forces between objects: Entraining,enforced disintegration,and shattering

When a moving object (A) contacts a stationary one (B) and Object B then moves, visual impressions of force occur along with a visual impression of causality. It is shown that findings about force impressions that occur with launching effect stimuli generalize to other forms of phenomenal causality, namely entraining, enforced disintegration, and shattering stimuli. In particular, evidence is reported for generality of the force asymmetry, in which the amount of perceived force exerted by Object A is greater than the amount of perceived resistance put up by Object B. Effects of manipulations of kinematic variables also resembled those found in previous experiments. Some unpredicted findings occurred. It is argued that these reflect a change in perceptual interpretation when both objects are in motion prior to contact, due to both objects being perceived as in autonomous motion. The results are consistent with a theoretical account in which force impressions occur by a process of matching kinematic information in visual stimuli to stored representations of actions on objects, which supply information about forces.     

Forms of momentum across space: Representational,operational, and attentional

Cognition can exhibit biases consistent with future expectations, and some of these biases result in momentum-like effects and have been linked with the idea of an internalization of the effects of momentum. These momentum-like effects include representational momentum, operational momentum, and attentional momentum. Similarities and differences between these different momentum-like effects are considered. Hubbard’s (2005) review of representational momentum is updated to include studies published since that review appeared, and the first full reviews of operational momentum and attentional momentum are provided. It is suggested that (1) many variables that influence one of these momentum-like effects have a similar influence on another momentum-like effect, (2) representational momentum, operational momentum, and attentional momentum reflect similar or overlapping mechanisms, and operational momentum and attentional momentum are special cases of representational momentum, and (3) representational momentum, operational momentum, and attentional momentum reflect properties of a more general spatial representation in which change or transformation of a stimulus is mapped onto motion in a spatial coordinate system.     

儿童表征深度的微观变化:路线、速度及来源

以往研究表明,表征深度的发展是一个随年龄增长而单调上升的过程,但这些年龄尺度上的横断研究难以说明表征深度变化的发生过程及其机制.本研究采用微观发生法,以齿轮推断任务为材料,探讨了68名小学五年级儿童表征深度的变化路线、速度及来源.结果表明,在整个实验期间,儿童的表征深度发生了显著变化;其变化路线主要体现为从最基本的一级水平向更高级的二、三级水平的递增过程,但这种变化路线的个体间差异较大;变化速度体现出先快后慢的特点;上述变化特点与练习及自我解释、练习模式的特征以及任务难度等因素有关.     

Representational insight in pigeons: comparing subjects with and without real-life experience

Understanding the relation between objects and their pictures at a level beyond mere feature discrimination is by no means a trivial cognitive ability, and support of this is still weak in nonhuman species. Here, we report evidence of representational insight in pigeons. Responding to pictures of human body parts was compared in birds that had extensive pre-experience with live humans and in birds that had never seen any human heads. In a two-alternative forced-choice procedure the pigeons were trained to discriminate between pictures of either handless or headless humans and nonhumans. On test, the birds had to choose (i) between body parts they had already seen in training and the parts that had been missing, (ii) between previously seen parts and arbitrary skin patches, and (iii) between previously missing parts and skin patches. Only the pigeons that lacked experience with real heads and were trained with pictures of headless humans failed to show a significant preference for pictures of missing parts (i.e., heads) over arbitrary skin patches. This demonstrates the importance of individual experience with the real 3D-referents of pictures for classification of the latter and is thereby evidence of representational insight.     

婴儿期母语音位范畴习得：来自言语知觉的证据

婴儿期言语知觉研究表明婴儿最初（1~4个月）可以分辨几乎所有的语音范畴对比;随母语经验增加,婴儿言语知觉逐渐表现出母语语音特征的影响,辅音知觉表现为对母语语音范畴界限敏感性的提高和对非母语范畴界限敏感性的下降,非母语范畴开始同化到母语音系中去,母语元音知觉表现出知觉磁体效应。这些证据表明婴儿逐渐习得母语音位范畴,音位范畴习得顺序可能依赖范畴例子本身的声学特征、发生频率等因素     

Impaired Speech Perception in Poor Readers: Evidence from Hearing and Speech Reading

The performance of 14 poor readers on an audiovisual speech perception task was compared with 14 normal subjects matched on chronological age (CA) and 14 subjects matched on reading age (RA). The task consisted of identifying synthetic speech varying in place of articulation on an acoustic 9-point continuum between /ba/ and /da/ (Massaro & Cohen, 1983). The acoustic speech events were factorially combined with the visual articulation of /ba/, /da/, or none. In addition, the visual-only articulation of /ba/ or /da/ was presented. The results showed that (1) poor readers were less categorical than CA and RA in the identification of the auditory speech events and (2) that they were worse in speech reading. This convergence between the deficits clearly suggests that the auditory speech processing difficulty of poor readers is speech specific and relates to the processing of phonological information.     

知觉组织影响时序知觉的认知机制:ERP研究的证据

以往研究显示,知觉组织影响时序知觉,采用ERP技术拟探讨知觉组织影响时序知觉的认知机制。采集23名被试完成同时判断任务的脑电数据。行为结果发现,知觉组织影响时序知觉,具体表现为知觉组织条件的同时判断频率显著高于非知觉组织条件。ERPs结果发现,在P1和P2成分上,知觉组织条件与非知觉组织条件引发的波幅没有显著差异; 而在N1成分上,知觉组织条件诱发的N1波幅显著大于非知觉组织条件。这表明,知觉组织对时序知觉的影响可能发生在视觉刺激加工的早期阶段,视觉刺激的知觉组织先于时序信息加工。     

The Gender Heuristic and the Database: Factors Affecting the Perception of Gender-Related Differences in the Experience and Display of Emotions

Two studies investigated the conditions under which people use gender stereotypes about emotion to make judgments about the emotions of self and others. Participants in Study 1 either played or watched a competitive word game (actual game conditions), or imagined themselves playing or watching the same game (hypothetical condition). Participants actually involved in the game made emotion judgments either immediately after the game (online condition) or after a time delay (delayed condition). Both in terms of self-reports of emotional experience and perceptions of the emotional displays of others, gender-related stereotypes had a significant influence on judgments of participants in the hypothetical condition but had no significant influence on online judgments. Furthermore, participants rating their own emotional experiences (after a 1-week delay) exhibited responses consistent with gender stereotypes, whereas participants rating the emotional displays of others (after a 1-day delay) did not show a gender-stereotypic response pattern. Study 2 found that participants rating hypothetical others were more likely to employ gender-related stereotypes of emotion than participants rating themselves were. The results of both studies suggest that people tend to use an emotion-related gender heuristic when they lack a database of concrete situational experiences on which to base their judgments.     

Effects of Culturally Consistent Counseling Tasks on American and International Student Observers' Perception of Counselor Credibility: A Preliminary Investigation

The researcher investigated the causes of international students' perception of counselor credibility. Student observers viewed two videotapes of simulated counseling that were determined to be significantly different: Tape A was consistent with the Asian lndian client's cultural values; Tape B, with mainstream counseling. The observers, White American students and Asian Indian and South Korean international students, were asked to view Tape A or Tape B and answer Barak and LaCrosse's Counselor Rating Form (CRF). The Asian Indians found the culturally consistent counselor significantly more expert-like and trustworthy than the culturally discrepant counselor. The Asian Indians differed from the Americans on their perceptions of the culturally discrepant counselor.     

对整合模型和占优启发式模型的检验：基于信息加工过程的眼动研究证据

基于信息加工过程视角, 本研究采用眼动技术检验风险决策整合模型和占优启发式模型。结果表明, 自主决策任务条件下决策过程反应时及信息搜索模式均不同于期望价值(EV)迫选任务条件下的决策过程反应时及信息搜索模式; 自主决策任务条件下决策过程反应时并未随着选项间整体值(CPT值)差值的变大而变快, 且基于特征(attribute-based)的信息搜索多于基于选项(option-based)的信息搜索, 不符合整合模型预期。此外, 决策者亦未按照占优启发式模型所假定的决策步骤进行决策。基于信息加工过程的检验结果既不利于以累积预期理论为代表的整合模型, 亦不利于占优启发式模型。文章建议从决策过程视角检验已有决策模型及建立新的启发式决策过程模型(process model)。     

How Therapists Discuss Causality with Families in an Integrated Family Management and Therapy Service, a Qualitative Study with Focus Groups

Family therapy (FT) and family management (FM) approaches to psychosis have been distinguished by their understanding of causality. FM holds a biological understanding which could have negative consequences for the person with psychosis. FT, with its focus on interactions, has been criticised for its potential for implying that families are to blame for their relative’s psychosis. Although these two approaches have been integrated, the manner in which causality is discussed in family sessions within an integrated approach has not been researched. Qualitative research was conducted with clinicians working in an established integrated family intervention service to explore how they discuss causality. Four focus groups were conducted and a framework approach to thematic analysis used. Four themes developed from the analysis: how a shared understanding of causality is constructed; the use of an ‘explorative conversational’ therapeutic style to discuss causality; factors that limited the exploration of causality; and the challenges of working with issues of blame. The stress-vulnerability model, genograms, interactional-cycles and formulation were identified as useful tools to develop a shared understanding of causality. The therapeutic style of ‘explorative conversation’–based in FT, integrated with the stress-vulnerability model–based in FM, was identified as key to the integrated model and clinicians felt these two aspects addressed the criticisms that have been levelled at each approach. Complex family problems, abuse and illicit drug use were factors that challenged causality discussions. Families feeling blamed/blaming themselves and attempts to transform blame made up a dominant theme of the research.     

Imputations and Explications: Representational Problems in Treatments of Prepositional Attitudes

The representation of propositional attitudes (beliefs, desires, etc.) and the analysis of natural-language, propositional-attitude reports presents difficult problems for cognitive science and artificial intelligence. In particular, various representational approaches to attitudes involve the incorrect “imputation,” to cognitive agents, of the use of artificial theoryladen notions. Interesting cases of this problem are shown to occur in several approaches to attitudes. The imputation problem is shown to arise from the way that representational approaches explicate properties and relationships, and in particular from the way they explicate propositional attitudes themselves. Another factor contributing to imputation is the compositional nature of typical semantic approaches to propositional-attitude reports. Some strategies for avoiding undesirable imputation are examined. One of the main conclusions is that the importance of imputations that arise in a representation scheme depends strongly on the use to which the scheme is put—on whether, for instance, the scheme is used as part of a formal, objective account of natural language, or is used rather as a representational tool within an agent.     

右侧背外侧前额叶皮质在时间知觉中的作用:基于经颅磁刺激的研究

将10 Hz的重复经颅磁刺激(r TMS)施加于右背外侧前额叶皮质(r DLPFC),探讨该区域在时间加工模型中的作用。实验一采用时间复制任务,通过比较基线和后测条件下时间估计行为的差异,探究高频r TMS离线施加于r DLPFC之后对时间知觉的影响。实验二采用毫秒和秒两种范围的时距,探究r DLPFC在不同范围的时间知觉中的作用。结果发现r TMS施加于r DLPFC导致对1.5 s高估,对600 ms的估计无显著影响,提示r DLPFC在涉及工作记忆加工过程的秒范围的时间知觉中有重要作用。     

Attentional Tracking in the Perception of Apparent Motion: Evidence from Sequential Blanking Displays

Perception of sequential blanking displays was studied in a series of three experiments investigating factors that influence whether “shadow motion” or “item motion” is seen in a display. In addition to the duration of the blanking interval (BI) itself, three other such factors were identified: the eccentricity at which the display is viewed, the spacing of items in the display, and the type of motion that subjects are instructed to try to see. It is argued that these and other previously reported results are explicable without the need to invoke any kind of visual integration period. Instead, they are interpreted in terms of a first-order system of automatic luminance detectors and a second-order tracking system involving both voluntary and involuntary attention. The relationship of these findings to other recent work in apparent motion and visual attention and to other bistable motion displays is discussed.