Emotion dysregulation as a partial mediator between reinforcement sensitivity and posttraumatic stress symptoms

The reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) asserts that three brain subsystems (i.e., the Behavioral Approach System [BAS], the Behavioral Inhibition System [BIS], and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System [FFFS]) underlie individual variations seen in personality and psychopathology. Though revised by Gray and McNaughton (2000), many researchers continue to utilize the original, and now outdated, theory of reinforcement sensitivity. Additionally, while there is an abundance of research investigating the association between reinforcement sensitivity and psychopathology, the underlying mechanisms between these constructs remain largely unknown. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to test whether emotion dysregulation acted as a partial mediator between FFFS sensitivity and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) under the revised RST framework. Data was collected from 282 undergraduate students at a Midwestern university who experienced at least one potentially traumatic event. Bootstrapping was used to test the significance of the indirect effect (e.g., amount of mediation) of FFFS sensitivity on PTSS. The indirect effect was significant (2000 bootstrapped CI_95 = .11−.25), indicating that emotion dysregulation partially mediated the relationship between FFFS sensitivity and PTSS. More specifically, individuals with high FFFS sensitivity reported higher levels of emotion dysregulation, which in turn was associated with greater PTSS scores.     

Throwing more light on the dark side of psychopathy: An extension of previous findings for the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Despite previous studies of psychopathy and the motivational systems of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) of personality, few have examined psychopathy in light of the revised RST model. In a large sample (N = 779) of young adults, we expand on Hughes, Moore, Morris, and Corr’s (2012) preliminary findings relating primary/secondary psychopathy to revised RST’s three systems: Flight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), and Behavioral Approach System (BAS). Converging results between Hughes et al. and the current study emphasize three major findings: (1) primary psychopathy is negatively related to the BIS as well as the FFFS; (2) primary psychopathy is positively related to goal-driven behavior of the BAS; and, (3) secondary psychopathy is positively related to impulsivity reflected in the BAS. The FFFS was incrementally predictive of primary but not secondary psychopathy. No evidence for a BAS × BIS interaction in psychopathy was found. Results are discussed in terms of future research directions.     

An analysis of reinforcement sensitivity theory and the five-factor model

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) and the Five-Factor Model (FFM) are two prominent personality accounts that have emerged from different backgrounds. Although the two accounts are applied to similar research topics, there is limited empirical work examining the correspondence between them. The current study explored the relationship between RST-based personality traits and the FFM domains and facets in an undergraduate sample (n = 668). Regression analyses indicated that Sensitivity to Punishment (SP) was positively associated with Neuroticism and Agreeableness, and negatively associated with Extraversion, Openness, and Conscientiousness. In contrast, Sensitivity to Reward (SR) was positively associated with Extraversion and Neuroticism, and negatively associated with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Exploratory analyses at the facet level specified the relationship between SP, SR, and each domain. A factor analysis was also conducted to explore the higher-order factor structure of RST and the FFM domains. Three factors emerged, which we labelled SP, Stability-Impulsivity, and Sensation Seeking. Taken together, these findings suggest that there is substantial overlap between these two accounts of personality. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Coping mediates relationships between reinforcement sensitivity and symptoms of psychopathology

Limited research has evaluated whether coping strategies mediate the relationships between reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) and symptoms of psychopathology. Undergraduates (n = 293) completed questionnaires assessing RST, coping, and symptoms of psychopathology. Consistent with our hypotheses, bootstrapping analyses indicated that emotion- and avoidance-focused coping mediated the relationship between high Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and depression, anxiety, and worry. Less problem-focused coping mediated the relationship between low Behavioral Approach System (BAS) and depression. Avoidance-focused coping mediated the effects of high BIS on drug and alcohol use whereas high BAS directly predicted alcohol and drug use. Unexpectedly, emotion-focused coping mediated the relationship between BAS and anxiety and worry. These results provide support for the hypothesis that personality variables are associated with psychopathology partially through coping.     

Disagreeable narcissism mediates an effect of BAS on addictive behaviors

Some forms of personality dysfunction that are associated with substance use and other externalizing behaviors, such as Narcissistic Personality Disorder, are characterized by low five-factor Agreeableness. Low Agreeableness and high Extraversion are both associated with the Behavioral Approach System in the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality (RST; McNaughton & Corr, 2008). Meta-analyses examining personality predictors of Substance Use Disorders (Kotov et al., 2010) and Pathological Gambling (MacLaren et al., 2011) have implicated low Agreeableness but not Extraversion. In the present study, we sampled undergraduate students (N = 346) to examine relationships between two aspects of grandiose narcissism measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), approach motivation measured by the BIS/BAS scales, and self-reported addictive behaviors. Disagreeable and Extraverted subscales of the NPI were examined for possible mediation of associations between BAS and addictive behaviors. The more disagreeable aspect of narcissism mediated the effects of BAS on drug use, gambling, sex, and maladaptive intimate relationships. These results suggest that one mechanism through which the Behavioral Approach System may promote addictive behavior among grandiose Narcissists is through its association with their aggressive and antagonistic interpersonal style.     

Reinforcement sensitivity theory and symptoms of personality disorder: Specificity of the BIS in Cluster C and BAS in Cluster B

Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory, consisting of the behavioral inhibition (BIS) and behavioral activation (BAS), is frequently used to represent basic dimensions of psychopathology. However, notably few investigations have examined the link between the BIS/BAS and symptoms of personality disorder (PD). Although the Fight-Flight-Freeze System has emerged in the revised model as an important aspect of motivation, the BIS (linked to anxiety) and BAS (linked to impulsivity) have been the primary foci. The current investigation uses a dimensional measure of PD, the schedule for nonadaptive and adaptive personality (SNAP; Clark, 1993) applied to two independent samples of English-speaking participants: undergraduates (n = 276) and clinical patients (n = 47). Results were consistent across both samples, demonstrating that symptoms of Cluster B PDs are indicative of high BAS levels whereas symptoms of Cluster C PDs are characterized by high BIS levels.     

The prediction of Honesty–Humility-related criteria by the HEXACO and Five-Factor Models of personality

We examined two questions involving the relative validity of the HEXACO and Five-Factor Models of personality structure. First, would the HEXACO model outpredict the Five-Factor Model (FFM) with regard to several diverse criteria that are conceptually relevant to the Honesty–Humility dimension of personality? If so, would the addition of a proxy Honesty–Humility scale—as computed from relevant facets of the FFM Agreeableness domain—allow the FFM to achieve predictive validities matching those of the HEXACO model? Results from self- and observer ratings in three samples (each N > 200) indicated that the HEXACO model showed considerable predictive validity advantages over the FFM. When a measure of Honesty–Humility derived from the FFM was added to the original five domains of that model, the predictive validity reached that of the HEXACO model for some criteria, but remained substantially below for others.     

Facets of mindfulness mediate behavioral inhibition systems and emotion dysregulation

Behavioral motivation is regulated through the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioral approach system (BAS), which underlie responses to emotional stimuli and are thought to influence emotion dysregulation. Research shows that mindfulness may increase the efficacy of emotion regulation among those with psychological symptoms, but the relationships between behavioral motivation and mindfulness have been only minimally explored. This study examines relationships between behavioral motivation systems and emotion dysregulation as mediated by mindfulness facets. Mediation was tested in a sample of 246 college students (M_age = 19.28, 61.8% female, 81.3% Caucasian) using a multiple mediator bootstrapping method. Results revealed an indirect relationship between BIS sensitivity and increased emotion dysregulation through underutilization of three distinct mindfulness skills: act with awareness, non-judging, and non-reactivity. Mindfulness facets did not mediate relationships between BAS sensitivity and emotion dysregulation, though BAS Reward Responsiveness directly predicted increased emotion dysregulation while BAS Drive was marginally associated with decreased emotion dysregulation. Findings delineate specific relationships between BIS/BAS, mindfulness skills, and emotion dysregulation while suggesting mindfulness training may be useful for BIS sensitive individuals.     

Five-Factor Model facets differentially predict in-the-moment affect and cognitions

The facets of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality are presumed to represent distinct, biologically-based tendencies to act, think, and behave; yet they have received little behaviorally-based empirical validation. In this study, FFM facets were used to examine individual differences in affective and cognitive responses to stressors as they are experienced in daily life. Participants (N = 79) completed the NEO-PI-R followed by a week-long experience sampling procedure. As expected, hierarchical linear modeling showed that FFM facets captured affective and cognitive tendencies that were missed at the domain level. They additionally demonstrated convergent and divergent validity in predicting momentary affect. These results provide evidence that facets are distinct, non-interchangeable predictors of daily thoughts and emotions.     

Compulsive buying and the Five Factor Model of personality: A facet analysis

In recent years, the broad dimensions of the Five-Factor Model have been an object of an increasing interest in the compulsive buying field. Nevertheless, the absence of studies that analyse the FFM facets in compulsive buyers is surprising. This study, employing the NEO-PI-R, intends to assess whether there are differences in both facets and broad traits, in three groups with low (n = 792), moderate (n = 456), and high (n = 117) compulsive buying propensities. The results confirm that the high propensity group presents the highest significant levels in neuroticism and the lowest in conscientiousness and agreeableness. Whereas all neuroticism and conscientiousness’ facets establish significant differences among the groups (the largest correspond to anxiety and impulsivity, and dutifulness and self-discipline, respectively), only some significant differences for agreeableness are established (namely, straightforwardness, altruism, trust, and modesty). Finally, even though there are no differences between groups in extraversion and openness factors, extraversion’s excitement-seeking, positive emotions and assertiveness facets, and openness’ aesthetics and ideas facets do establish significant differences. Generally speaking, these findings advocate the need to analyse facets, in addition to the broad factors, in the effort to advance our understanding about the elements that make up the personality structure of the compulsive buyer.     

The effects of behavioral inhibition/approach system as predictors of Internet addiction in adolescents

This study aimed to determine how the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) affect Internet addiction in adolescents. Two hundred and eleven high school students participated in this study and completed the Young’s Internet Addiction Test (IAT), BIS/BAS scales, and several self-administered questionnaires about depression, anxiety, and impulsivity. Hierarchical regressions showed that BIS and BAS × BIS emerged as significant predictors of IAT; however, only BAS-fun seeking subscale predicted IAT among BAS related subscales. In further analyses, the BAS-fun seeking subscale was mediated by impulsivity and anxiety, and BIS was mediated by anxiety and depression. The current findings imply that BIS and BAS interdependently influence vulnerability to Internet addiction through both shared (anxiety) and different (depression and impulsivity, respectively) pathways.     

Facet-level analysis of the relations between personality and laboratory aggression

Multiple reviews and meta-analyses have identified the low pole of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) Agreeableness (also called Antagonism) as the primary domain-level personality correlates of aggression across self-report and behavioral methodologies. In the current study, we expand on this literature by investigating the relations between FFM facets and aggressive behavior as measured by laboratory competitive reaction time tasks (CRTTs). Across three samples (total N = 639), we conducted weighted mean analyses, multiple regression analyses, and dominance analyses to determine which FFM facets were the strongest predictors of aggression within and across domains. These analyses suggested that facets of Agreeableness were among the strongest consistent predictors of CRTT aggression, including Sympathy (r = −.21) and Cooperation (r = −.14), but facets from other FFM domains also yielded meaningful relations (e.g., Anger from Neuroticism; r = .17). We conclude by discussing these results in the context of controversies surrounding laboratory aggression paradigms and emphasizing the importance of considering small effect sizes in the prediction of societally harmful behavior like aggression.     

The role of BIS/BAS in the vulnerability for depression in adolescent girls

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), the original (i.e. Gray, 1982) or revised (Gray & McNaughton, 2000), has yet to be used as a framework for investigating vulnerability to Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in adolescents. The present study employed a high-risk design to examine whether aberrant BIS-FFFS/BAS activity was similarly present in both depressed girls and girls at high risk for depression.MethodsN = 85 age-matched biological daughters of mothers with differential MDD status: (a) MDD (n = 17), (b) high-risk (n = 34), and (c) healthy controls (n = 34) completed measures of the BIS/BAS, depression, and anxiety.ResultsMDD girls scored significantly higher on BIS than healthy controls but not high-risk girls, and the high-risk and control groups did not differ. No group differences were found on BAS or FFFS-Fear.ConclusionsElevated BIS was not identified as a vulnerability factor for MDD; however, it does distinguish depressed adolescents from healthy controls.     

Neuroticism,BIS, and reactivity to discrete negative mood inductions

Research has established relationships between the personality dimensions of neuroticism and BIS and broad negative emotional reactivity. However, few researchers have examined the relationships among neuroticism, BIS, and discrete negative emotional reactivities. The present study examined whether individuals scoring high on neuroticism and BIS were more reactive across four discrete negative mood inductions, relative to those scoring low on these traits. Participants (n = 166) completed personality questionnaires, measures of current mood, viewed a specific mood-inducing film clip (sadness, anger, fear or disgust) and then reported their moods a second time. Results revealed that neuroticism/BIS was associated with high reactivity to the fear and sadness inductions. Neuroticism/BIS did not predict anger or disgust reactivity, but neuroticism/BIS and extraversion/BAS interacted in predicting anger. Although further research is needed to extend generalizability, it appears that neuroticism and BIS predict negative emotional reactivity broadly, but not ubiquitously.     

Maladaptive Correlates of the Failure to Forgive Self and Others: Further Evidence for a Two-Component Model of Forgiveness

We examined relations between the Five-factor model (FFM) domains and facets of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, hypothesized behavioral manifestations of these traits (e.g., social information processing and delay discounting), and externalizing behaviors in an undergraduate sample. Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were differentially related to the externalizing behaviors and the laboratory tasks, which in turn evinced significant relations with externalizing behaviors. The personality facets displayed evidence of modest incremental validity over the broader domains and were related to the externalizing behaviors even when controlling for the social information processing and behavioral discounting variables. In general, the results support the validity of the FFM domains and facets, particularly Agreeableness, in the prediction of a variety of externalizing behaviors.     

Externalizing behavior through the lens of the five-factor model: a focus on agreeableness and conscientiousness

We examined relations between the Five-factor model (FFM) domains and facets of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, hypothesized behavioral manifestations of these traits (e.g., social information processing and delay discounting), and externalizing behaviors in an undergraduate sample. Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were differentially related to the externalizing behaviors and the laboratory tasks, which in turn evinced significant relations with externalizing behaviors. The personality facets displayed evidence of modest incremental validity over the broader domains and were related to the externalizing behaviors even when controlling for the social information processing and behavioral discounting variables. In general, the results support the validity of the FFM domains and facets, particularly Agreeableness, in the prediction of a variety of externalizing behaviors.     

Establishing construct validity for Openness-to-Experience in middle childhood: Contributions from personality and temperament

Controversy exists over the validity of child Openness-to-Experience (OE). To establish construct validity for child OE, data were collected for 346 children (51% girls) aged 9-to-10-years (M = 9.92, SD = 0.83). Parents completed questionnaires about their children’s personality, temperament, and behavioral problems and competencies. Factor analyses of relevant personality and temperament facets revealed a robust OE factor made up of three facets: Intellect, Imagination, and Sensitivity. Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was established via associations with other personality traits, and behavioral problems and competencies. Results underscore the importance of drawing from both temperament and personality literatures in attempts to establish construct validity for child trait domains as well as examining facet-level associations between OE and child behavior.     

The distressed (Type D) and Five-Factor Models of personality in young,healthy adults and their association with emotional inhibition and distress

The distressed (Type D) personality (the combination of negative affectivity and social inhibition traits) has been associated with adverse health outcomes. This study investigated the validity of the Type D construct against the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality, and its association with emotional control and distress. In total 498 university students (mean age 28.9 ± 8.4 years) completed the Type D scale (DS14), and measurements for the FFM of personality, emotional control, anxiety, depression and stress. The construct validity of the Icelandic DS14 was confirmed. The Type D components negative affectivity and social inhibition were strongly associated with neuroticism and extraversion of the FFM (r = 0.82 and r = −0.67, respectively). Negative affectivity also correlated with rehearsal/rumination (r = 0.58) and social inhibition with emotional inhibition (r = 0.54), indicative of emotional control. Type D personality (40% of sample) was associated with higher levels of anxiety, depression and stress. The Type D personality components were associated with the FFM of personality, emotional control and emotional distress. Importantly, social and emotional inhibition were closely related, providing novel information about the presence of emotional inhibition within the social inhibition trait.     

It takes two: Honesty–Humility and Agreeableness differentially predict active versus reactive cooperation

Recently, similar six-factor solutions have emerged in lexical studies across languages, giving rise to the HEXACO model of personality. As a core extension of its most well-known predecessor, the five-factor model, the HEXACO model distinguishes between two factors predicting complimentary aspects of prosocial behavior or, more specifically, reciprocal altruism: Honesty–Humility (the tendency toward active cooperation, i.e. non-exploitation) and Agreeableness (the tendency toward reactive cooperation, i.e. non-retaliation). However, this dissociation has not yet been tested to its full extent. To this end, we herein present re-analyses of published studies (N = 1090), showing that Honesty–Humility, but not Agreeableness, indeed predicts active cooperation. More importantly, in a new experiment (N = 410), we found a pattern of two concurrent selective associations, supporting the theoretical distinction between the two factors: Honesty–Humility (but not Agreeableness) predicted active cooperation (non-exploitation in the dictator game), whereas Agreeableness (but not Honesty–Humility) was linked to reactive cooperation (non-retaliation in the ultimatum game).     

Reinforcement sensitivity theory as a predictor of senior-executive performance

This paper develops and tests links between the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality and senior-executive job performance, hypothesising that the theory’s personality traits, known as ‘BIS’ and ‘BAS’, will interact to predict performance. 167 chief and second-tier executives completed Carver and White’s (1994)BIS/BAS Scales, and had their overall performance rated by a superior or peer using four items. Structural equation modeling showed that while BAS has no main effect and BIS has a marginally significant effect on performance (p = 0.07), BIS and BAS interact to predict performance (p = 0.01), the optimal scenario being a combination of high BAS and low BIS. These results show the importance of testing traits’ interactions in applied personality research.