Games,Rules, and Practices

We present and defend a view labeled “practiceism” which provides a solution to the incompatibility problems. The classic incompatibility problem is inconsistency of: 1. Someone who intentionally violates the rules of a game is not playing the game.

2. In many cases, players intentionally violate the rules as part of playing the game (e.g. fouling to stop the clock in basketball).

The problem has a normative counterpart: 1’. In normal cases, it is wrong for a player to intentionally violate the rules of the game.

2’. In many normal cases, it is not wrong for a player to intentionally violate the rules of the game (e.g. fouling to stop the clock in basketball).

According to both formalism and informalism, the rules of the game include the formal rules of the game. Both traditional positions avoid the incompatibility problems by rejecting 1 and 1'. Practiceism rejects 2 and 2’: it maintains that the rules are the rules manifested in playing the game, not the formal rules.

Practiceism presents two theses: (a) the real rules of the game are the rules players follow: the practice determines the rules, and not vice versa. (b) the (first order) rules of a game determine what is legitimate within the game.     

Colors in the life-world

Continental Philosophy Review -     

公益诉讼:制度、话语及实践

公益诉讼虽然肇始于古罗马时期 ,但真正被激活并迅速发展却是进入现代资本主义社会之后。西方诸国公益诉讼的勃兴与经济发展、立法观念和司法理念等各种社会背景因素密切相关。可见 ,公益诉讼不仅是一套制度更是一种实践。我国社会的发展现状 ,客观上具备了公益诉讼得以生长的社会经济条件 ,但在立法制度、司法理念与司法机制等方面尚不具备运作公益诉讼的条件和环境 ,要将纸面上权利转换为伸手可及现实利益 ,便需要对立法制度、司法理念等因素进行一番彻底的改造和革新     

Beliefs, Persons and Practices: Beyond Tolerance

The central thesis of this paper is that, for most issues of multiculturalism, regarding them as a problem of tolerance puts us on the wrong track because there are certain biases inherent in the principle of tolerance. These biases – individualism, combined with a focus on religion and a focus on beliefs rather than on persons or practices – can be regarded as distinctly Protestant. Extending the scope of tolerance may seem a solution but if we really want to counter these biases, the principle of tolerance becomes so general that it loses any distinctive meaning. Therefore, we should accept the limited scope of tolerance and its biases. The principle of tolerance can still be useful for some problems where there is a clear and direct link to political or religious beliefs. Moreover, it should be cherished as a more general attitude or practice in Dutch society. For most problems of multiculturalism, however, we should appeal to broader theoretical frameworks that do justice to persons and practices.     

Children's Perception of Munsell Colors

This study examined perception of Munsell notation color by seven third-graders and three college adults (both with normal color vision) and three children (from the same family) who were red-green color blind. The stimuli varied in terms of Munsell Hue (red, green, and purple), Munsell Value (brightness), and Munsell Chroma (saturation). Each S judged the dissimilarity of 325 color pairs (from 26 stimuli). The data were analyzed via individual difference multidimensional scaling that defined a common perceptual space for the group. The results indicated that the third-graders’ color perception was like that of the adults. The color circle was reproduced, as were dimensions based on Munsell Value and Chroma. The color deficient children's data did not fit into that common space. Their perception was guided primarily by the brightness of the stimulus. In sum, the data indicated that, for the domain of Munsell colors, results obtained from adults concerning the dimensionality of the color space could be applied to young children (as long as they have normal color vision).     

Primitivism and the Analogy between Colors and Values

The analogy between colors and values is strongly interlinked with the idea that these properties are by nature dispositions or response‐dependent properties. Indeed, that colors are essentially visible, and values are inherently motivational, cries out for a dispositional or a response‐dependent account. Recently, Primitivism has challenged the viability of the dispositional account of colors, taking the apple, for instance, to be “gloriously, perfectly, and primitively red.” Unsurprisingly, the attack on the dispositional account of colors has found a moral analogue in the view that values are sui generis irreducibly primitive properties. The question this article addresses is whether given Primitivism the analogy between colors and values is preserved; or in other words, whether Primitivism breaks the bond between the dispositional account and the analogy between colors and values.     

Knowing and Interacting: A Study of Culture,Practices, and Resources in a Grade 8 Open-Inquiry Science Classroom Guided by a Cognitive Apprenticeship Metaphor

In this investigation, we analyzed the processes of knowing and interacting in an open-inquiry learning environment that was planned and implemented by teachers who used the metaphor of cognitive apprenticeship as a referent. Based on detailed analyses of students' conversations, we documented the construction of and changes in Grade 8 students' understandings as they engaged in inquiries for which they planned focus questions, designed data collection procedures, and interpreted the findings. Through their interactions, the students also arrived at private meanings that they did not report in their findings and that were often overlooked by teachers who used static end-of-unit tests to measure student learning. In conducting their inquiries, students successfully negotiated courses of actions and established group structures through which they organized their interactions. Formal and informal interactions between students and research groups facilitated the formation of networks that contributed to the quick diffusion of knowledge necessary in the construction of a community of knowers. Each of these analytic dimensions is amply documented by data from the observed classrooms. Classroom implications of the findings are discussed.     

Neuromarketing Research Practices: Attitudes,Ethics, and Behavioral Intentions

As a new addition to the marketing research toolbox, neuromarketing science has given rise to a variety of questions relevant to consumer perceptions of this nascent area of investigation. Neuromarketing researchers are dependent on consumer involvement as research participants, and finding means to educate the public about neuromarketing is a priority for professionals working in the field. This article describes the results of two online questionnaire studies focused on the role of personal constructs presumed to underlie perceptions of neuromarketing research. The findings point to neuromarketing research knowledge, attitudes toward science, attitudes toward technology, and ethical ideology as important factors linked to neuromarketing research attitudes, perceptions of the ethicality of neuromarketing research, and willingness to participate in neuromarketing studies. We discuss the implications of our findings for educating the public about neuromarketing research and encouraging research participation, and we conclude by suggesting directions for future research.     

患者的药物颜色偏好

本研究比较了患者的一般颜色与药物颜色偏好的不同,探究患者对药物颜色的态度及服药时间对二者的影响。通过对699名患者的调查发现,其一般颜色偏好仍是蓝、红、绿、紫、黄,但药物颜色偏好紫色。与深色相比,患者更偏好浅色药物。患者认为药物颜色的作用主要是区分药物种类,而且服药时间越久,对这种功能的需求越强。这些结果支持了生态效价理论,并有很重要的实用价值。药物颜色偏好的其它影响因素和心理效应是未来研究的方向。     

Best Practices in Communicating Best Practices

We send messages as much in how we communicate as by what we communicate. Learning best practices, such as those for data management proposed in the accompanying article, are components of becoming a responsible and contributing member of the community of scholars. Not only must we teach the principles underlying best practices, we should model and teach approaches for implementing those practices and help students come to view them within the larger context of becoming members of a professional community. How to collaborate across differences and how to have disputes professionally are skills all professionals need, and they should be taught along with the content itself.     

Culture, context, and behavior

In this article I propose a model that posits three major sources of influence on behavior-basic human nature (via universal psychological processes), culture (via social roles), and personality (via individual role identities) and argue that individual behaviors are the products of the interaction between the three. I discuss how culture emerges from the interaction of basic human nature and the ecological contexts in which groups exist, and how social roles are determined by culture-specific psychological meanings attributed to situational contexts. The model further suggests that situational context moderates the relative contributions of the three sources in influencing behavior. I provide examples of apparent contradictory findings in the study of emotion that can be explained by the model proposed.     

Culture, Change, and Prediction

Five studies showed that Chinese and Americans perceive change differently. Chinese anticipated more changes from an initial state than Americans did. When events were changing in a particular direction, Chinese were more likely than Americans to predict change in the direction of change. Moreover, for patterns with changing slopes, Chinese predicted greater change in the way slopes changed, in comparison to Americans. In addition, people who predicted change were perceived as wise by Chinese more than by Americans. Implications for social attribution, tolerance for contradiction, persistence on tasks, and the illusion of control are discussed.     

Culture, attention, and emotion

This research provides experimental evidence for cultural influence on one of the most basic elements of emotional processing: attention to positive versus negative stimuli. To this end, we focused on Russian culture, which is characterized by brooding and melancholy. In Study 1, Russians spent significantly more time looking at negative than positive pictures, whereas Americans did not show this tendency. In Study 2, Russian Latvians were randomly primed with symbols of each culture, after which we measured the speed of recognition for positive versus negative trait words. Biculturals were significantly faster in recognizing negative words (as compared with baseline) when primed with Russian versus Latvian cultural symbols. Greater identification with Russian culture facilitated this effect. We provide a theoretical discussion of mental processes underlying cultural differences in emotion research.