The effect of the driving activity on target detection as a function of the visibility level: Implications for road lighting

The Small Target Visibility model used in road lighting design is based on a strong simplification of the driving task. To specify the driver’s visibility needs in a way consistent with state-of-the-art lighting engineering practice, a field experiment was designed in order to investigate target detection performances, comparing driver and passenger status conditions. Sixteen target visibility levels (VL) were used. In the driver status, 34 participants had to press a button as soon as they detected the target stimulus placed on the experimental lighted section. In the passenger status, the same participants had to detect the target stimulus while the experimenter drove. The results show that the passengers’ performances (detection distance) were higher than the drivers’ performances (p = .0014). Furthermore, the higher the VL, the higher the detection distance (p < .0001). These results lead up to modify the reference scenario in order to take into account human factor components for road lighting design.     

Reward versus punishment: Reinforcement sensitivity theory,young novice drivers’ perceived risk,and risky driving

One reason that young novice drivers remain statistically over-represented in road deaths is their rate of engagement in risky driving. Prominent contributing factors include driver’s age, sex, personality, risk perception, and their driving experience. This study applied reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST, specifically reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity) to predict young novice drivers’ perceived risk and self-reported risky driving engagement, while accounting for potential influences of age, sex, and driving experience. Drivers (N = 643, 490 females, 17–25 years, M = 20.02, SD = 2.32) who held an Australian driver’s license (P1, P2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey containing the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and a measure of perceived risk of driving-related behaviours. A path analytic model derived from RST showed that perceived risk had the strongest negative association with reported risky driving engagement, followed by reward sensitivity (positive association). Respondent’s age and reward sensitivity were associated with perceived risk. Age, reward sensitivity, and perceived risk were associated with reported engagement in risky driving behaviours. Driver sex only had direct paths with RST variables, and through reward sensitivity, indirect paths to perceived risk, and reported risky driving. Neither punishment sensitivity nor driving experience contributed significantly to the model. Implications and applications of the model, and the unique set of variables examined, are discussed in relation to road safety interventions and driver training.     

Risky driving and lapses on the road: An exploration on self-regulatory dysfunction in Australian drivers

Self-regulatory ability has been linked to a) the tendency to engage in risky behaviours, and b) the ability to focus attention. This study investigated the relationships between metacognitions, emotion regulation difficulties, risky driving behaviours, and attentional lapses on the road, among an online sample of Australian drivers (N = 255). Firstly, group comparisons showed that although females reported greater self-regulatory dysfunction, males reported a higher frequency of risky driving behaviours. Alternatively, older drivers reported being better self-regulators, and less-frequent risky driving behaviours and attentional lapses on the road. Secondly, correlations demonstrated that metacognitions were associated with difficulties in regulating emotions, the engagement of risky driving behaviours, and the quantity of attentional lapses experienced on the road. Emotion regulation difficulties and risky driving behaviours were also shown to be positively related to the frequency of attentional lapses. Structural equation modelling confirmed a hierarchical model in predicting attentional lapses, with self-regulatory components representing higher-order factors over risky behavioural components. Finally, metacognitions demonstrated mediative effects toward the relationship between prior speeding experiences and future intentions to speed. This study has provided preliminary evidence for the application of metacognitions in the engagement of risky driving behaviours, and therefore the potential for informing future interventions.     

“I would have lost the respect of my friends and family if they knew I had bent the road rules”: Parents,peers, and the perilous behaviour of young drivers

Young novice drivers are at considerable risk of injury on the road. Their behaviour appears vulnerable to the social influence of their parents and friends. The nature and mechanisms of parent and peer influence on young novice driver (16–25 years) behaviour was explored via small group interviews (n = 21) and two surveys (n1 = 1170, n2 = 390) to inform more effective young driver countermeasures. Parental and peer influence occurred in pre-Licence, Learner, and Provisional (intermediate) periods. Pre-Licence and unsupervised Learner drivers reported their parents were less likely to punish risky driving (e.g., speeding). These drivers were more likely to imitate their parents and reported their parents were also risky drivers. Young novice drivers who experienced or expected social punishments from peers, including ‘being told off’ for risky driving, reported less riskiness. Conversely drivers who experienced or expected social rewards such as being ‘cheered on’ by friends – who were also more risky drivers – reported more risky driving including crashes and offences. Interventions enhancing positive influence and curtailing negative influence may improve road safety outcomes not only for young novice drivers, but for all persons who share the road with them. Parent-specific interventions warrant further development and evaluation including: modelling safe driving behaviour by parents; active monitoring of driving during novice licensure; and sharing the family vehicle during the intermediate phase. Peer-targeted interventions including modelling of safe driving behaviour and attitudes; minimisation of social reinforcement and promotion of social sanctions for risky driving also need further development and evaluation.     

Detecting eye movements in dynamic environments

To take advantage of the increasing number of in-vehicle devices, automobile drivers must divide their attention between primary (driving) and secondary (operating in-vehicle device) tasks. In dynamic environments such as driving, however, it is not easy to identify and quantify how a driver focuses on the various tasks he/she is simultaneously engaged in, including the distracting tasks. Measures derived from the driver’s scan path have been used as correlates of driver attention. This article presents a methodology for analyzing eye positions, which are discrete samples of a subject’s scan path, in order to categorize driver eye movements. Previous methods of analyzing eye positions recorded in a dynamic environment have relied completely on the manual identification of the focus of visual attention from a point of regard superimposed on a video of a recorded scene, failing to utilize information regarding movement structure in the raw recorded eye positions. Although effective, these methods are too time consuming to be easily used when the large data sets that would be required to identify subtle differences between drivers, under different road conditions, and with different levels of distraction are processed. The aim of the methods presented in this article are to extend the degree of automation in the processing of eye movement data by proposing a methodology for eye movement analysis that extends automated fixation identification to include smooth and saccadic movements. By identifying eye movements in the recorded eye positions, a method of reducing the analysis of scene video to a finite search space is presented. The implementation of a software tool for the eye movement analysis is described, including an example from an on-road test-driving sample.     

Are novice drivers overconfident? A comparison of self-assessed and examiner-assessed driver competences in a Finnish and Swedish sample

Studies of subjective driving skill have usually assessed perceived driving skill in relation to the skills of the average driver. In order to examine whether novice drivers are overconfident with respect to their actual skills, a different method was used in the present study, where specific aspects of perceived driver competence were compared with assessments made by a driver examiner. A Finnish (n = 2847) and a Swedish (n = 805) sample of driving test candidates completed self-assessments and took a practical driving test; the instruments differed between the countries. The results indicated that about 50 percent of the Finnish and between 25 and 35 percent of the Swedish candidates made realistic assessments of their competence in the areas Vehicle manoeuvring, Economical driving and Traffic safety. The proportion of those who overestimated their competence was greater among the Swedish candidates than the Finnish candidates. This might be explained by greater possibilities of practicing self-assessment in the Finnish driver education. Furthermore, the results indicate that males are not overconfident to a greater extent than females. In conclusion, when perceived competence is related to actual competence instead of the skills of the average driver, the majority of drivers are no longer found to overestimate their skills.     

Metacognition,rumination and road rage: An examination of driver anger progression and expression in Australia

Road rage is a serious issue impacting road safety on Australian roads. This study investigated the psychological antecedents involved in aggressive driver behaviours. Specifically, the study investigated the relationships between metacognitive beliefs, anger rumination, trait driver anger, and driver aggression; and examined the extent of aggressive behaviours in a sample of Australian drivers (N = 246). An inspection of cross-tabulations indicated that nearly all drivers engaged in verbal driver aggression (94%), approximately half of the drivers engaged in vehicle aggression (53%), and approximately a quarter of the drivers engaged in physical aggression (27%). Driver aggression was more commonly reported from males, open licensed, and middle-aged drivers. Structural path analysis indicated that there was a hierarchical series of relationships present, in that metacognitive beliefs influenced cognitive constructs such as anger rumination and constructive expression. Additionally, such factors were shown to more prominently influence trait driver anger, and the degree to which it was expressed. Bivariate correlations also demonstrated that the relationships carried forward to more specific dimensions of anger rumination and driver aggression styles. The findings of this study may assist to identify the origins of psychological mechanisms involved with anger progression and expression and inform potential interventions for aggressive driving behaviours.     

The impact of courteous and discourteous drivers on physiological stress

Prior studies into road safety have concentrated largely on studying unsafe forms of driving behaviour such as aggressive, stressed, and risky driving. Little attention has been given to ‘positive’ driving behaviour, such as how pro-social driving may help to promote cooperation with other road users and decrease incidences of aggressive and stressful driving. This study aimed to compare the impact of courteous and discourteous driving on the immediate physical health of other drivers (blood pressure, heart rate, and markers of stress) whilst controlling for other recognized factors responsible for driver stress such as road infrastructure (e.g. roadworks, traffic lights, freeways) and driving maneuvers (e.g. merging, tail-gaiting, navigating roundabouts). Using actors in a deception study, a naturalistic driving scenario was created in a lab-based simulation. All participants (n = 10; 39 ± 14.5 years) drove the same route in a simulator and engaged with the same driving behaviours and other virtual road users on two separate occasions separated by 7 days. The difference between conditions was whether the participant interacted with other drivers who displayed: a) courteous or b) discourteous behaviours. Blood pressure, heart rate variability and salivary hormone concentrations (cortisol and alpha amylase) were measured before and immediately after each simulated drive. After interacting with the discourteous drivers, participants experienced significantly higher mean arterial blood pressure, systolic and diastolic pressure, central systolic and diastolic pressure, and heart rate, and lower heart rate variability (indicative of acute stress) compared to interacting with the courteous drivers. Conversely, these markers of stress were reduced after interacting with the courteous drivers. The results support courtesy on the road to provide short-term benefits for the recipient of the action, while also increasing road safety more generally.     

Self-concept as a risky driver: Mediating the relationship between racing video games and on-road driving violations in a community-based sample

PurposeThe mediating relationship of self-conceptions as a risky driver on self-reported driving violations was examined for players of “drive’em up” and “circuit” racing video games using an Internet survey of automobile and racing club members. Structural equation modelling (SEM) tested Fischer et al. (2012) extended socio-cognitive model on the effects of risk-glorifying media on cognitions and actions.MethodAn Internet questionnaire was developed and relied upon validated instruments or questions derived from previous surveys. Driver club members were asked about: (1) their frequency of video game playing, (2) self-perceptions as a risky driver and (3) self-reported driving violations. SEM was performed to examine mediating effects of racing video game playing on self-reported driving violations.ResultsPlaying “drive‘em up” video games positively predicted risky self-concept (β = .15, t = 2.26), which in turn, positively predicted driving violations (β = .73, t = 8.63), while playing “circuit racing” games did not predict risky self-concept, although risky self-concept did predict driving violations (β = .72, t = 8.67).ConclusionsSelf-concept as a risky driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing and self-reported driving violations for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” video games. These findings are congruent with Fischer and colleagues’ experimental model that self-concept as a reckless driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” games and risk-taking behavior in a video of road traffic scenarios.     

Nomophobia and self-reported smartphone use while driving: An investigation into whether nomophobia can increase the likelihood of illegal smartphone use while driving

In Australia, illegal smartphone use while driving is on the rise, increasing the likelihood drivers could be distracted and crash. Smartphones avail users a sense of belonging, connectedness, and access to information. As such, the sensation of being without one’s smartphone has developed into the prevalence of nomophobia, defined as the fear and anxiety associated with being without smartphone. The aim of the current study was to specifically examine the relationship between smartphone use while driving and nomophobia by 1) determining the types and frequency of illegal phone use while driving and, 2) exploring the relationship between nomophobia and illegal phone use while driving. The sample consisted of 2,774 Victorian smartphone users (47.0% male) with a valid driver’s licence. Driver’s nomophobia levels were measured using the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), while driver’s smartphone use was measured using an original scale developed by the authors. A binary logistic regression was conducted which showed that the longer average time spent per day on a smartphone and a lack of knowledge of the mobile phone road law were the strongest positive predictors of illegal use (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.09–1.60; OR = 1.84, 95% CI = 1.48–2.28, respectively). However, only one nomophobia factor (i.e., access to information) significantly predicted illegal smartphone use (OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.04–1.09). Smartphone use is a complex and contextual behaviour, therefore, focusing on the fear of being without in dependency overlooks the nuances of the need to be with. This study offered several practical interventions that may mitigate illegal smartphone use and reduce the likelihood of crashes among Victorian road users.     

The impact of age on useful visual field deterioration and risk evaluation in a simulated driving task

The primary goal of this study is to evaluate whether the driver can estimate his performance and the deterioration of his state of alertness during a simulated driving task. The second goal is to study the relation between useful visual field (UVF) deterioration and the capacity to estimate performance in a visual task and the decrease of level of alertness as a function of age. In our experiment, two groups of subjects: 10 drivers between 21 and 34 years old and nine drivers between 46 and 57 years old were required to follow a vehicle in a simulated road traffic situation for 2 hours. In addition, the driver had to detect the change of colour of a signal located in the central part of his visual field or a peripheral signal appeared on the rear light of one of the vehicles in the traffic. The analysis of data collected during this visual task confirms that UVF deteriorates with the duration of the driving task and with the driver's age. The analysis of subjective data related to the state of alertness highlights an effect both of age and of the moment when this self-evaluation was carried out. However, self-evaluation of the subject's performance does not depend on driver's age. Finally, the study shows that the correlation between objective data (performance of visual task) and subjective data (state of drowsiness and self-evaluation of performance of the visual task) is low, and the implications with regard to road safety are discussed.     

Driving mental workload and performance of ageing drivers

The World Health Organization stated that the global ageing population is increasing rapidly as well as the case of road accidents involving ageing drivers. This study presents the driving mental workload and performance model of ageing drivers in the context of real-time road driving. Twenty paid participants (ten males) with a mean age of 57.8 years old (SD = 2.7) and mean driving experience of 29.6 years (SD = 8.5) took part in driving experiments with three complexity levels of situation: simple situation (SS), moderately complex situation (MCS), and very complex situation (VCS). The subjective ratings using NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), physiological measure using electroencephalogram, number of traffic violations (NTVs), speed variability, and reaction time of peripheral detection task were measured. The driving experiments reveal the following: (1) The subjective workload ratings on mean physical demand score were the highest. (2) The electroencephalogram results show that situation complexity had significant effects on theta relative power and alpha relative power of two channel locations (3) The highest mean NTVs was in VCS. (4) The mean speed variability in the MCS was significantly lower than that of in the SS and VCS. (5) The maximum reaction time was recorded in VCS while the minimum reaction time was recorded in the MCS. The overall driving performance score regression models were developed based on the strong correlation and linear relationship between mental workload and driving performance elements. The models may benefit as a reference for designers, manufacturers, developers, and policymakers in designing better driving environment for ageing drivers by integrating safety and transportation, thus, optimizing and sustaining the driving performance of ageing drivers.     

The psychosocial purpose of driving and its relationship with the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers

BackgroundThe overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes, injuries and fatalities around the world has resulted in a breadth of injury prevention efforts including education, enforcement, engineering, and exposure control. Despite multifaceted intervention, the young driver problem remains a challenge for injury prevention researchers, practitioners and policy-makers. The intractable nature of young driver crash risks suggests that a deeper understanding of their car use – that is, the purpose of their driving – is required to inform the design of more effective young driver countermeasures.AimsThis research examined the driving purpose reported by young drivers, including the relationship with self-reported risky driving behaviours including offences.MethodsYoung drivers with a Learner or Provisional licence participated in three online surveys (N1 = 656, 17–20 years; N2 = 1051, 17–20 years; N3 = 351, 17–21 years) as part of a larger state-wide project in Queensland, Australia.ResultsA driving purpose scale was developed (the PsychoSocial Purpose Driving Scale, PSPDS), revealing that young drivers drove for psychosocial reasons such as for a sense of freedom and to feel independent. Drivers who reported the greatest psychosocial purpose for driving were more likely to be male and to report more risky driving behaviours such as speeding. Drivers who deliberately avoided on-road police presence and reported a prior driving-related offence had significantly greater PSPDS scores, and higher reporting of psychosocial driving purposes was found over time as drivers transitioned from the supervised Learner licence phase to the independent Provisional (intermediate) licence phase.Discussion and conclusionsThe psychosocial needs met by driving suggest that effective intervention to prevent young driver injury requires further consideration of their driving purpose. Enforcement, education, and engineering efforts which consider the psychosocial purpose of the driving are likely to be more efficacious than those which presently do not. Road safety countermeasures could reduce the young driver’s exposure to risk through such mechanisms as encouraging the use of public transport.     

Investigating sex,masculinity and femininity in relation to impulsive driving and driving anger expression

Human factors constitute a class of prominent road safety related factors. In the present study, human factors of driving were studied by investigating sex differences and gender roles in relation to impulsive driving and driving anger expression. A total of 425 drivers between the ages of 18 and 56 (M = 25.46, SD = 7.58) participated to the study and completed a series of questionnaires including a demographic information form, the Bem Sex Roles Inventory, the Impulsive Driver Behaviour Scale and the Driving Anger Expression Inventory. According to the ANCOVA results, male drivers showed higher functional impulsivity, lack of premeditation and use of the vehicle to express anger than female drivers. Additionally, hierarchical regression analyses showed that masculinity was positively associated with functional impulsivity, urgency and the dimensions of aggressive anger expression. However, femininity was positively associated with functional impulsivity and adaptive/constructive anger expression, but negatively associated with the dimensions of dysfunctional impulsivity and aggressive anger expression. Overall, the results showed the significant solo effects of masculinity and femininity on impulsive driver behaviours and driving anger expression, over and above the effects of sex, and the interaction between sex and gender roles. In the present study, previously reported findings indicating the relationships between sex and gender roles and driving anger expression were supported and extended by providing the literature with the contribution of answering the question how sex and gender roles are related to impulsive driver behaviours. The findings of the two related concepts of impulsive driving and driving anger expression were discussed in light of the current literature. Contributions, implications and future research directions concerning road safety practices were presented.     

场景知觉中的眼动分析指标:基于注视和眼跳视角

眼动范式是场景知觉研究的重要方法之一,可以通过对场景知觉过程中眼动变化的实时记录,真实地反映场景信息加工的内在心理机制;然而,人们的心理活动是极其复杂的,与之相应的眼动指标也具有多样性和复杂性。对眼动指标的分析,有不同的分析维度,比如整体和局部、时间和空间等。本文回顾了已有的眼动指标分类,并尝试从注视和眼跳的视角对场景知觉过程中的眼动指标进行分类。在此基础上,从界定标准、心理学意义、研究应用等方面对相应的眼动指标进行分析和介绍,最后提出了眼动指标分析和应用可能存在的问题,以及未来研究可能拓展的领域。     

Investigating the motivational factors influencing drivers intentions to unsafe driving behaviours: Speeding and overtaking violations

Achieving road safety depends on driver attitudes and behaviours in handling the vehicle on roads. The availability of good road, improvement of vehicle designs and drivers experience lead to reduction in crashes but not prevention of crashes. The study aims to predict the drivers’ intentions towards speeding and overtaking violations when under the influence of motivational factors using belief measure of TPB and DBQ variables. To achieve this, questionnaires were randomly administered to a sample of Ghanaian drivers (N = 354) who held valid driving licenses. This study applied regression techniques. The result shows that the components of TPB and DBQ variables were able to predict drivers’ intentions towards speeding and overtaking violations. The study further shows that components of TPB made larger contributions to the prediction of divers’ intentions to speeding and overtaking than the DBQ. Further analysis revealed that, in the prediction of drivers’ intentions, speeding attitude was the most frequent violations compared to overtaking. The drivers tend to involved in overtaking violations when they perceived the driving motivations would enhance the performance of the behaviour. Additionally, control belief has been the strongest predictor of drivers’ intentions under the influence of motivations to speeding and overtaking violations. It appeared that the drivers who intended to involve in speeding and overtaking violations had strong beliefs in the factors and are more likely to violate based on their beliefs. The practical implications of the findings for the development of interventions to promote road safety and positive changes are also discussed.     

The effect of sleep-need and time-on-task on driver fatigue

Both sleep- and task-related factors are thought to contribute to driver fatigue, with each factor individually associated with deteriorated driving performance. However, the relative and combined effects of these factors in the context of monotonous driving have not been well studied. This study (N = 60) investigated lateral and longitudinal vehicle control, subjective fatigue and physiological response (EEG) during three 10-minute periods of time-on-task spread across a monotonous, 2-hour simulator drive. Level of physiological sleep-need was manipulated between participants by varying the instructed time spent in bed on the night before testing (≤5h or ≥ 8 h). In addition, half of the participants in each sleep group read the applicable speed limit from periodic roadside signs whereas the others performed an arithmetic calculation, displayed on the signs, to determine the speed limit. This task manipulation has been demonstrated to reduce performance decrements over time. Results demonstrated effects of time-on-task and sleep need on self-report ratings, an effect of time-on-task on EEG indices, and an interaction of sleep-need and time-on-task on an EEG index of mental workload and on the lateral control measure of driving performance. There were no significant effects on the measure of speed variability. These results confirm that both sleep-need and time-on-task negatively affect driver state, and that time-on-task decrements in driver performance can occur in the absence of heightened sleep-need. Results also suggest that drivers with heightened sleep-need could protect their performance for a short time, perhaps by exerting effort to compensate for reduced capacity. The secondary task did not counteract declining performance.     

How impressions of other drivers affect one’s behavior when merging lanes

In recent years, systems have been developed to realize automatic driving based on objective information such as the relative distance and relative speed between vehicles. However, humans still must drive in complex situations, for instance, when merging lanes. In such driving situations, it is possible that people make decisions based not only on objective information, but also on subjective information. This study examined how subjective information, specifically, a driver’s impression of the other vehicle, affects the decision to merge in front of or behind the other vehicle when merging lanes on a highway. Twenty participants (n_male = 10; n_female = 10; M_age = 43.92 [SD_age = 11.40]) joined two experiments, Days 1E and 2E, using a driving simulator. Two months after participating in Day 1E the participants joined Day 2E. In the Day 1E, they drove either on the merging lane or the main lane and merged lanes while considering the other vehicle driving along the adjacent lane. This experiment measured the probability that the participants drove in front of another vehicle upon merging, which is defined as “lead probability.” The Day 2E was similar to 1E, except for the manipulation of the participants’ impression of the other vehicle as being aggressive/cautious via acceleration/deceleration of the other vehicle, and through the contents of the instructions regarding the other vehicle’s driving characteristics. In the Day 2E, the participants were randomly assigned to two: Aggressive or Cautious conditions. As the result of comparing the lead probabilities, it was found that only when the participants were driving on the merging lane and had the impression that the other vehicle is aggressive, the impression lowered the lead probability. The result indicates that people make decisions based not only on objective information but also on subjective information for specific driving situations, such as merging lanes. These findings can help in the development of automated driving systems that allow safer merging.     

Effect of a short nap on the alertness of young drivers: Repercussion on the perception of motorcycles according to extent of the useful visual field of the driver

The objectives of this study are to analyze the effect of a short nap on the level of alertness and on the drivers’ ability to detect the motorcyclists on the road according to the size of his/her useful visual field (UVF).Nineteen participants (m = 21 years old) carried out a driving task with a simulator, after taking a short nap (30 min) in the vehicle or not. They had to distinguish the colour change of a signal on a vehicle they were following and to detect a motorcycle which briefly appeared on the road at different eccentricities.Drivers with a limited UVF are those who detect the fewest motorcycles. Taking a short nap before the driving does not have any significant effect on data related to vision (motorcycles and signals detected), driving and alertness state ((α+θ)/β). There is a linear relationship between the size of the UVF and the ability to detect the motorcycle appearing in the left outside mirror.The implications of the results concerning the short nap as a countermeasure to a decrease in alertness and the perception of motorcycles according to extent of the useful visual field of the driver are discussed in terms of road safety.