Impressions after an automated mobility experience: An acceptance study

This paper presents people’s impressions after a demonstration of a fully robotized electric vehicle in Rambouillet, a peri-urban area connected with rural sections in France. 155 participants experienced a 6.5 km ride that included driving in a narrow two-way road, negotiating roundabouts, traversing a tunnel and interacting with other users of the road such as vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists. 298 impressions from 114 respondents were collected from a written questionnaire and open interviews. Users’ comments were classified in categories as follows: system capabilities, purpose and benefits, travel destination and encouraging remarks. Major results show that participants felt safe, where only 1.01% of comments denoted apprehension despite the increase of speed (up to 50 km/h) with respect to other studies. Users’ were satisfied with the automated vehicle (AV) performance, where only 3.5% criticized the system, denoting they expected a higher level of autonomy. 22% of users mentioned train stations as useful application (i.e. potential destination) for an automated on-demand mobility service. More than 200 comments were related to travel destinations, pointing towards various scenarios where an AV service could be useful for them. Conclusions show that realistic vehicle speed increases passenger acceptance of automated vehicles, increasing system confidence with respect to previous studies in the field.     

Factors of acceptability,acceptance and usage for non-rail autonomous public transport vehicles: A systematic literature review

Non-rail autonomous public transport vehicles have emerged over the last few years. Technical progress in automation has resulted in a growing number of autonomous shuttle pilot experiments. Although these systems are technologically feasible, determining the extent to which they correspond to users’ needs and expectations remains a major issue. In order to answer that question, we conducted a systematic review which synthesizes the literature regarding the acceptability and willingness to use this type of autonomous public transport. This literature review allowed us to identify 39 documents addressing 70 factors of acceptability, acceptance and usage of non-rail autonomous public transport vehicles. The most cited factors in the literature concern service characteristics (times, schedules, fares) and safety issues (road-safety, on-board security). Factors related to automation level, comfort and access to the vehicle feature appear to a lesser extent. Acceptance is also related to personal factors, such as socio-demographics, travel habits, and personality. This review could be of interest to designers and manufacturers of non-rail autonomous public transport vehicles, as well as policy makers, and assist with the successful implementation of autonomous public transport services which are better adapted and meet the needs of all potential users.     

Kano model of autonomous driving user acceptance according to driver characteristics: A survey study

The development of advanced technology has revolutionized human life. In this regard, autonomous driving, a core technology currently being developed, is changing rapidly. In addition to improving technology, the acceptance of technology users must be secured. Most relevant studies conducted hitherto have involved evaluation using acceptance elements defined based on the technology acceptance model and the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. In this study, 21 elements associated with the acceptance of autonomous driving are defined. The Kano model is used to classify the acceptance elements into five attributes and to propose guidelines for improving acceptance. Driver characteristics are classified based on four human factors, which are used to investigate differences in acceptance between groups. A Google survey and fieldwork were completed by 187 participants. Contrary to previous studies, no significant gender differences are observed in the current study. In terms of age, many obstacles are encountered in securing autonomous driving acceptance from the elderly driver group. Additionally, a more conservative tendency is indicated by people with more driving experience. The results of this study reveal important points for identifying elements that hinder future sustainability and commercialization of autonomous driving, thereby facilitating its further technological development.     

Autonomous buses: Intentions to use,passenger experiences,and suggestions for improvement

Research on the use of autonomous vehicles as a mode of public transport in a city context is lacking. This paper focuses on the use of recently established autonomous buses (self-driving electric shuttle buses) running along a regular public transport line in a residential area of Oslo, Norway. We use a mixed-methods approach based on survey and interview data from two independent studies. The paper examines intentions to use autonomous buses before and after these were introduced in the case area as well as how passengers experience traveling by autonomous bus. Results show that the intention to use the autonomous buses was mostly positive both before and after using them. Most users felt safe while traveling by autonomous bus. Two suggestions for improvement made by the users were to: increase the speed and reduce the abrupt breaking of the autonomous buses. Overall, outcomes from this paper suggest that residents would be willing to use autonomous buses if these offer more frequent bus departures than the existing ones. However, as full automation has not been achieved yet and there is a host on board who can control the vehicle if necessary, passenger experiences and intentions to use should be reassessed with fully automated buses in future studies.     

Consequences of autonomous vehicles: Ambivalent expectations and their impact on acceptance

Connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) are within reach of widespread deployment on public roads, but public perceptions are ambivalent. The objective of the present research was to assess expectations about the consequences of CAV introduction. These expectations should explain CAV acceptance, but their relative importance is poorly understood. We conducted a survey with a representatively drawn panel sample (N = 529) from France, Germany, Italy, and the UK. The survey consisted of a large item pool of expected consequences from CAV introduction, as well as general and affective evaluation of CAVs, ease of use, and behavioral intention to use CAVs. Exploratory factor analysis revealed four facets of expected consequences: road safety, privacy, efficiency and ecological sustainability. On average, expectations were mostly positive for ecological sustainability and safety, but negative for privacy. At the same time, substantial variance existed between respondents and between countries. For safety and efficiency, improvement was expected by a third of respondents, while another third expected worsening. Respondents from Italy expected more positive consequences for safety, while respondents from both France and Germany expected more negative consequences for privacy. To different degrees, all four facets predicted the intention to use CAVs in a structural equation model, primarily via affective evaluations. For policy makers, manufacturers, and service providers, understanding the trade-offs inherent to different CAV solutions will be central to ensure citizens’ needs are respected.     

Empirical evidence of bias in public acceptance of autonomous vehicles

This study synthesizes 91 peer-reviewed survey studies examining the public acceptance of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs). The framework of the study is informed by three questions: (1) How well do the collected samples represent the acceptance of the general population? (2) How often does bias exist in measuring public acceptance in AV’s questionnaires? (3) How much bias persists in reporting public acceptance of AV’s research? The findings indicate that (1) people with disabilities and racial minorities are only included in 10% and 20% of the studies, respectively (2) 50% of the studies present their questionnaire, and most are perceived to be biased as a result of systematic errors such as leading questions, missing questions, and suggestive information, and (3) 72% of the studies suffer from the sentiment bias, where the positive tone in the title and abstract is more significant than in the result. This leads to imprecise findings and unrealistic depictions of acceptance of autonomous vehicles by the public. The analysis alerts researchers and practitioners to empirical evidence of bias in public acceptance of autonomous vehicles and recommends preventive actions.     

Barbados Spiritual Baptists: Social acceptance enhances opportunities for supporting public health

The Spiritual Baptist faith has been present in the Caribbean from about the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. However, the movement only extended to Barbados in 1957 when a Spiritual Baptist preacher, a Barbadian by birth, returned to his native island from Trinidad, where he had been living for several years. The Reverend Granville Williams established the first Spiritual Baptist Church in Barbados and has continued to oversee the church's development since its inception. This article describes the evolution of the church's status over the past 50 years, as seen by both members and non-members of the group, from a marginalized religious group into a settled and accepted denomination. Explication of this transformation phenomenon is also explored through qualitative interviews with Barbadian clergy non-members of the group. The implications of this transformation for the interplay of religion, mental health, and social services in the Caribbean are then discussed.     

A structural equation modeling approach for the acceptance of driverless automated shuttles based on constructs from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology and the Diffusion of Innovation Theory

The present study investigated the attitudes and acceptance of automated shuttles in public transport among 340 individuals physically experiencing the automated shuttle ‘Emily’ from Easymile in a mixed traffic environment on the semi-public EUREF (Europäisches Energieforum) campus in Berlin. Automated vehicle acceptance was modelled as a function of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) constructs performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT) constructs compatibility and trialability, as well as trust and automated shuttle sharing. The results show that after adding the DIT constructs, automated shuttle sharing, and trust to the model, the effect of performance expectancy on behavioural intention was no longer significant. Instead, compatibility with current travel was the strongest predictor of behavioural intention to use automated shuttles. It was further found that individuals who are willing to share rides in an automated shuttle with fellow travelers (i.e., automated shuttle sharing) and who trust automated shuttles (i.e., trust) are more likely to intend to use automated shuttles (i.e., behavioural intention). The highest mean rating was obtained for believing that automated shuttles are easy to use, while the lowest mean rating was obtained for feeling safe inside the automated shuttle without any type of supervision. The analysis revealed a preference for the supervision of the automated shuttle via an external control room to the supervision by a human steward onboard. We recommend future research to investigate the hypothesis that compatibility could serve as an even stronger predictor of the behavioural intention to use automated shuttles in public transport than performance expectancy.     

On the way to autonomous driving: How age influences the acceptance of driver assistance systems

Driver assistance systems have the potential to create the basis for future mobility solutions. They enable older generations in need of assistance to maintain their mobility even in the case of physical deficits. Therefore, we conducted a literature review and identified factors that may influence the acceptance of driver assistance systems. Based on the technology acceptance model and other influencing factors, we developed a research model that was validated with the help of a study (n = 227). The results show that, depending on age, there are differences in the acceptance of driver assistance systems and their influencing factors among old and young people. The five determinants of acceptance, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and trust in technology are viewed as equally important for all age groups. Differences emerge within the group of older vehicle drivers with varying weighting. For the 50–59 age group, perceived ease of use and social norm are most important, while for the 60–69 age group, perceived usefulness and trust in technology are very important. Among 70–90-year olds, trust in technology is emphasized as most important. Our results show how important it is to increase the confidence of older drivers in age-appropriate driver assistance systems, using target-group-specific advertising and public relations work.     

Experiences of older adults interacting with a shared autonomous vehicle and recommendations for future implementation

IntroductionA recognised potential benefit of autonomous vehicles is increased mobility for older adults. However, this group is more apprehensive about adoption, which may hinder uptake. Shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs) represent a use case that may be especially relevant for older people due to emerging applications in retirement villages and similar precincts. However, little research has examined the SAV-related concerns of older adults and strategies to address them. This study used an exploratory approach involving SAV exposure to identify strategies that may increase older people’s receptiveness to SAVs.MethodOlder adults living in retirement villages (n = 63) were interviewed while interacting with an SAV to examine their needs, expectations, and concerns regarding SAVs. The interview data were coded and thematically analysed.ResultsParticipants recommended the following approaches to ensuring SAVs are useful and acceptable to older adults: providing physical accessibility for those with mobility impairments, comfortable and practical internal layouts, and operating SAVs on convenient routes at useful speeds. Strategies such as exposing older adults to SAVs in operation to encourage uptake and initially ensuring a human assistant is present were suggested methods of increasing receptivity.DiscussionThe findings suggest older passengers are likely to share many of the same reactions to SAVs as the broader population, but with a stronger focus on issues relating to accessibility and the physical layout of the vehicles. The solutions to these issues suggested by the study participants may be useful for those designing SAVs for use in older people’s settings and beyond.     

Using the UTAUT2 model to explain public acceptance of conditionally automated (L3) cars: A questionnaire study among 9,118 car drivers from eight European countries

We investigated public acceptance of conditionally automated (SAE Level 3) passenger cars using a questionnaire study among 9,118 car-drivers in eight European countries, as part of the European L3Pilot project. 71.06% of respondents considered conditionally automated cars easy to use while 28.03% of respondents planned to buy a conditionally automated car once it is available. 41.85% of respondents would like to use the time in the conditionally automated car for secondary activities. Among these 41.85%, respondents plan to talk to fellow travellers (44.76%), surf the internet, watch videos or TV shows (44%), observe the landscape (41.70%), and work (17.06%). The UTAUT2 (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) was applied to investigate the effects of performance and effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, and hedonic motivation on the behavioural intention to use conditionally automated cars. Structural equation analysis revealed that the UTAUT2 can be applied to conditional automation, with hedonic motivation, social influence, and performance expectancy influencing the behavioural intention to buy and use a conditionally automated car. The present study also found positive effects of facilitating conditions on effort expectancy and hedonic motivation. Social influence was a positive predictor of hedonic motivation, facilitating conditions, and performance expectancy. Age, gender and experience with advanced driver assistance systems had significant, yet small (<0.10), effects on behavioural intention. The implications of these results on the policy and best practices to enable large-scale implementation of conditionally automated cars on public roads are discussed.     

Exploring the acceptance of connected and automated vehicles: Focus group discussions with experts and non-experts in transport

The successful deployment of connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) will largely depend on public opinion. Expectations and concerns are essential components driving the speed of market uptake and final adoption of these technologies. We have studied user expectations and concerns, as well as their provenance, by conducting a series of Focus Group (FG) discussions with transport area experts and non-expert participants, in Italy, Germany, and Spain. Together with user acceptance, potential advantages and disadvantages that CAVs may bring at a societal level were explored. Results show that benefits like increased safety and accessibility and improved travel experience for both driver and passengers could support CAVs’ deployment. Nevertheless, a variety of concerns were raised during the discussions, related to privacy, responsibility in case of an accident, and increase in maintenance and repair costs. These aspects could significantly hamper or delay CAVs acceptability and need to be carefully considered by stakeholders. The reported insights from the FG discussions and the fact that some participants noted positive changes of their initial idea of CAVs due to their participation in the discussion, exemplify the importance of citizen engagement activities to address mobility challenges.     

程序公正与权威信任:公共政策可接受性机制

中国正处于深刻的社会转型和社会变迁时期,社会风险加剧。其中一个重要的表征就是群体性事件频发。事件的背后,反映出民众对公共政策的不认可,如果公共政策的制定和执行不能充分考虑民众的接受性,极有可能构成新的社会风险,威胁社会稳定。因此,如何有效地提高民众对公共政策的接受性已经成为我国亟需解决的重大问题。项目欲建立程序公正、结果宜人性和权威信任(认知信任和情感信任)对公共政策可接受性、政府满意度的影响模型,从而有效提升政策可接受性。拟在不同的公共政策情境中通过Scenario、实验室模拟实验和问卷调查,探明程序公正和结果宜人性对政策可接受性、政府满意度的交互作用机制,以及权威信任对此交互作用机制的边界效应,并在此基础上进一步分析认知信任和情感信任对于政策可接受性、政府满意度及其因子关系的调节作用。研究成果可用于提高民众对政策的满意度,为政府制定政策提供科学依据。     

Interaction between pedestrians and automated vehicles: A Wizard of Oz experiment

Automated vehicles (AVs) will be introduced on public roads in the future, meaning that traditional vehicles and AVs will be sharing the urban space. There is currently little knowledge about the interaction between pedestrians and AVs from the point of view of the pedestrian in a real-life environment. Pedestrians may not know with which type of vehicle they are interacting, potentially leading to stress and altered crossing decisions. For example, pedestrians may show elevated stress and conservative crossing behavior when the AV driver does not make eye contact and performs a non-driving task instead. It is also possible that pedestrians assume that an AV would always yield (leading to short critical gaps). This study aimed to determine pedestrians’ crossing decisions when interacting with an AV as compared to when interacting with a traditional vehicle. We performed a study on a closed road section where participants (N = 24) encountered a Wizard of Oz AV and a traditional vehicle in a within-subject design. In the Wizard of Oz setup, a fake ‘driver’ sat on the driver seat while the vehicle was driven by the passenger by means of a joystick. Twenty scenarios were studied regarding vehicle conditions (traditional vehicle, ‘driver’ reading a newspaper, inattentive driver in a vehicle with “self-driving” sign on the roof, inattentive driver in a vehicle with “self-driving” signs on the hood and door, attentive driver), vehicle behavior (stopping vs. not stopping), and approach direction (left vs. right). Participants experienced each scenario once, in a randomized order. This allowed assessing the behavior of participants when interacting with AVs for the first time (no previous training or experience). Post-experiment interviews showed that about half of the participants thought that the vehicle was (sometimes) driven automatically. Measurements of the participants’ critical gap (i.e., the gap below which the participant will not attempt to begin crossing the street) and self-reported level of stress showed no statistically significant differences between the vehicle conditions. However, results from a post-experiment questionnaire indicated that most participants did perceive differences in vehicle appearance, and reported to have been influenced by these features. Future research could adopt more fine-grained behavioral measures, such as eye tracking, to determine how pedestrians react to AVs. Furthermore, we recommend examining the effectiveness of dynamic AV-to-pedestrian communication, such as artificial lights and gestures.     

The influence of system transparency on trust: Evaluating interfaces in a highly automated vehicle

Previous studies indicate that, if an automated vehicle communicates its system status and intended behaviour, it could increase user trust and acceptance. However, it is still unclear what types of interfaces will better portray this type of information. The present study evaluated different configurations of screens comparing how they communicated the possible hazards in the environment (e.g. vulnerable road users), and vehicle behaviours (e.g. intended trajectory). These interfaces were presented in a fully automated vehicle tested by 25 participants in an indoor arena. Surveys and interviews measured trust, usability and experience after users were driven by an automated low-speed pod. Participants experienced four types of interfaces, from a simple journey tracker to a windscreen-wide augmented reality (AR) interface which overlays hazards highlighted in the environment and the trajectory of the vehicle. A combination of the survey and interview data showed a clear preference for the AR windscreen and an animated representation of the environment. The trust in the vehicle featuring these interfaces was significantly higher than pretrial measurements. However, some users questioned if they want to see this information all the time. One additional result was that some users felt motion sick when presented with the more engaging content. This paper provides recommendations for the design of interfaces with the potential to improve trust and user experience within highly automated vehicles.     

Public acceptance of driver state monitoring for automated vehicles: Applying the UTAUT framework

Driver state monitoring (DSM) systems aim to measure driver/occupant state, considering factors such as fatigue, workload, attentiveness, and wellbeing. They are influential for some vehicles on the road today, but as we move towards higher levels of automation their use is expected to become even more important. Uncertainty around public perception of these systems is a potentially limiting factor, with potential concerns for privacy, data storage, perceived utility, and reliability amongst other things posing potential threats. A survey was conducted based on the Universal Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework, which collected 311 individual responses to explore the acceptability of this technology in specific relation to conditionally and partially automated vehicles. This paper identified that the factors of effort expectancy, performance expectancy, social influence, and attitudes towards using new technology are all positively related to overall behavioural intention, whereas anxiety is negatively related. Other demographic influences are discussed, and recommendations made for future research and marketing/implementation of DSM systems to ensure acceptance by future users.     

Factors influencing public awareness of autonomous vehicles: Empirical evidence from Brisbane

Growing concerns, regarding transport disadvantage and increased socioeconomic disparities, demand innovative ways to improve equity and make transportation systems smarter. One of the most anticipated developments within the field of smart mobility is driving automation systems. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) have the potential to improve accessibility, affordability, safety and efficiency of transport systems, but come with risks including the intensification of private vehicle travel. Understanding public awareness is an important step to determine whether motivation and intention to use AVs will impact on its potential. This paper aims to investigate factors influencing public awareness of AVs as a solution to transport disadvantage. The study applies an ordinal logistic regression analysis to analyse survey data collected from the residents of Brisbane (Australia). Our findings reveal that awareness is positively correlated within young and middle-aged adults, low-income residents, disability, public transport users, and those who feel unsafe on public transport, while an increase in the number of household vehicles is negatively correlated. The study provides insights into public awareness towards the potential benefits of AVs, and highlights potential opportunities and challenges associated with these expectations.     

Effects of visual factors during automated driving of mobility scooters on user comfort: An exploratory simulator study

An automated mobility scooter is expected to provide convenient and safe transportation for users in their living area. However, there is limited research on user comfort compared to that on user safety for the automated driving of mobility scooters. Because the user does not perform driving tasks in automated driving, the visual information from the peripheral environment and visual behavior is expected to closely affect the psychological comfort of the user. This study clarifies the effects of factors related to the automated driving of mobility scooters and the peripheral environment on the visual behavior and psychological comfort of the user. Effects of driving velocity and pedestrian density on the visual behavior and psychophysiological responses of users were investigated via a driving simulator. The results showed that automated driving in an environment with a high pedestrian density can result in a decrease in fixation duration, deactivation of visual processing, sympathetic activation, and feeling of negative emotion. This implies that the assessment of visual behaviors of users is important for the design of automated mobility scooters to improve user comfort.     

Effects of voice and similarity on procedural fairness and trust: A dual process model of public acceptance based on representatives’ participation

In citizen participation, a few representatives of the total citizen population participate in discussions with authorities regarding public decisions and policies. The present study examines a dual process model in which the representatives’ voice and similarity of values facilitate public acceptance through procedural fairness and trust in representatives, respectively. The results of an experiment employing a scenario method, which included participants from Japan (n = 211) and the Netherlands (n = 200), indicate that the representatives’ voice increased procedural fairness and public acceptance when the similarity of representatives was high. The effects of representatives’ voice on public acceptance via procedural fairness was supported in both nations, while other effects of representatives’ similarity on acceptance via trust were indicated only in Japan. These results suggest that the indirect voice of citizens, as conveyed by representatives, plays an important role in increasing perceptions of procedural fairness and public acceptance among citizens.     

Public perception of autonomous vehicles: A qualitative study based on interviews after riding an autonomous shuttle

Autonomous vehicles (AVs) can potentially compensate for human error whilst driving. Thus, the number of accidents and the amount of congestion, emissions and fuel consumption could be reduced. For such reduction to occur, insights into public acceptance of AVs must be considered because they are a crucial factor for the successful implementation of AVs in existing traffic systems.PurposeThis study aims to explore (1) the mobility behaviour of current passengers, (2) the perception of the public of how AVs can be applied, (3) the perceived challenges of AVs in terms of integration into existing traffic systems, (4) the general attitude of the public towards AVs and (5) the perceived safety of passengers after riding an autonomous shuttle with a maximum SAE level of 3 in the setting of mixed traffic.MethodThis qualitative study was conducted in Carinthia (Austria) in September 2018. Interviews were conducted with 19 participants aged between 20 and 75 years. The participants were recruited through purposeful sampling, and data were collected through in-depth, semistructured interviews which were recorded, transcribed, organised and analysed using systematic, qualitative content analysis.ResultsResults show that transport mobility plays an important role in social life. In rural areas, AVs can shift transportation modes from private cars to public transportation. The respondents perceive AVs as an alternative more than as a substitute for existing means of transportation. With the integration of AVs into existing traffic systems, the transportation of goods and people could be improved despite related uncertainties. This study explores different aspects of societal, technical, legal and economic challenges. Overall, the respondents feel positive about AVs. Responses regarding safety show that experience with AVs and speed are key factors.Originality/ValueThis study is one of the first to explain qualitatively public perceptions of AVs after an actual ride in an AV under real-life conditions. The results, which help understand AVs from the public’s perspective, may also provide guidelines for the successful integration of AVs in Austria.