The dread factor: how hazards and safety training influence learning and performance

On the basis of hypotheses derived from social and experiential learning theories, we meta-analytically investigated how safety training and workplace hazards impact the development of safety knowledge and safety performance. The results were consistent with an expected interaction between the level of engagement of safety training and hazardous event/exposure severity in the promotion of safety knowledge and performance. For safety knowledge and safety performance, highly engaging training was considerably more effective than less engaging training when hazardous event/exposure severity was high, whereas highly and less engaging training had comparable levels of effectiveness when hazardous event/exposure severity was low. Implications of these findings for theory testing and incorporating information on objective risk into workplace safety research and practice are discussed.     

Counsellor training: An evaluation of the effectiveness of a residential outdoor pursuits activity weeked on the personal development of trainee counsellors

Trainee counsellors were taken on an outdoor development weekend training course, organised as a component of a two year part-time professional counsellor training course. The weekend was held during the final term of the second year of the course at an outdoor pursuits centre in the Lake District. The weekend's activities included canoeing, abseiling, onenteering, hill walking, rope work and climbing as well as other adventure exercises. Attendance at the weekend was compulsoy for all the 17 students on the course. This training weekend was an innovation in counsellor training and therefore a pilot study was designed to evaluate its effectiveness in making a contribution to the overall development of the trainees as counsellors. The study used a same subject experimental design and data was collected pre and post the weekend. The assessment procedure adopted for the purpose of this research included the use of repertoy grids and a series of questions with analogue scales for responses. There was some evidence to suggest that as a result of the weekend the participants experienced an increase in their self esteem, changes in their level of self confidence, felt more co-operative towards their fellow students, felt more helped by and helpful towards others and had an increased awareness of their competitiveness and stamina. It was concluded that the weekend made some contribution to the personal development of counsellors in training, particularly with regard to team building, co-operation and group cohesion.     

Which skills how: options for family therapy training

This paper looks at some of the issues associated with attempting to provide training in family therapy on a low budget of time and money. It also considers some more general points to do with providing training. The more extensive programmes referred to which take place in the U.S.A. are not yet viable in the U.K. It is not suggested that they should be copied, since professional cultures differ, but some learning can usefully take place. The aims and methods of teaching on introductory and intermediate low budget short courses are described and compared, and some vignettes given in order to propose ways of making such training effective. Course outlines and trainee evaluation of such training are given in the appendices.     

Developing clinical effectiveness in psychotherapy training: Action research

This study is an evaluation of a new approach to clinical training in Transactional Analysis using the methodology of action research. The evaluation focuses on the second year of training and placement‐based clinical practice at the Metanoia Institute, UK. The design of the training year was research‐based and used the concept of an ‘internship’ year. The design aimed to close the gaps between clinical practice, supervision and formal training; facilitate translation of theory into practice; and integrate findings from the ‘common factors’ research into effectiveness of psychotherapy. Training and supervision methods were linked and focused on emerging issues in clinical practice and the development of students’ capacity for critical reflection and a research attitude to practice. The evaluation was a naturalistic study which used quantitative and qualitative methodology within the action research framework to reflect on the impact of the training on the participants, the organisation and the clinical practice. The quantitative outcomes show that the project developed the effectiveness of students’ clinical practice and reflexivity. Qualitative analysis gives insight into the experiences of the participants and the emotional impact of the research process.     

Effects of trainer expressiveness, organization, and trainee goal orientation on training outcomes

This laboratory experiment investigated the effects of trainer expressiveness, lecture organization, and trainee goal orientation on training outcomes. Participants (N = 135) listened to lectures that differed in organization and trainer expressiveness. Participants completed recall and problem-solving tests immediately and 2 days later. The results indicated that participants had the highest recall after an expressive and organized lecture. The findings for problem-solving performance were more complex. Participants with a high mastery orientation had their poorest problem-solving performance after listening to an organized and inexpressive lecture, whereas participants with a low mastery orientation did not respond to the effects of organization or expressiveness.     

An examination of learning processes during critical incident training: implications for the development of adaptable trainees

Three experiments are reported that examined the process by which trainees learn decision-making skills during a critical incident training program. Formal theories of category learning were used to identify two processes that may be responsible for the acquisition of decision-making skills: rule learning and exemplar learning. Experiments 1 and 2 used the process dissociation procedure (L. L. Jacoby, 1998) to evaluate the contribution of these processes to performance. The results suggest that trainees used a mixture of rule and exemplar learning. Furthermore, these learning processes were influenced by different aspects of training structure and design. The goal of Experiment 3 was to develop training techniques that enable trainees to use a rule adaptively. Trainees were tested on cases that represented exceptions to the rule. Unexpectedly, the results suggest that providing general instruction regarding the kinds of conditions in which a decision rule does not apply caused them to fixate on the specific conditions mentioned and impaired their ability to identify other conditions in which the rule might not apply. The theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Prospect relativity: how choice options influence decision under risk

In many theories of decision under risk (e.g., expected utility theory, rank-dependent utility theory, and prospect theory), the utility of a prospect is independent of other options in the choice set. The experiments presented here show a large effect of the available options, suggesting instead that prospects are valued relative to one another. The judged certainty equivalent for a prospect is strongly influenced by the options available. Similarly, the selection of a preferred prospect is strongly influenced by the prospects available. Alternative theories of decision under risk (e.g., the stochastic difference model, multialternative decision field theory, and range frequency theory), where prospects are valued relative to one another, can provide an account of these context effects.     

The effectiveness of humor in persuasion: the case of business ethics training

In this study, persuasion theory was used to develop the following predictions about use of humor in persuasive messages for business ethics training: (a) cartoon drawings will enhance persuasion by creating liking for the source, (b) ironic wisecracks will enhance persuasion by serving as a distraction from counterarguments, and (c) self-effacing humor will enhance persuasion by improving source credibility. Canadian business students (N = 148) participated in 1 of 4 versions of "The Ethics Challenge," a training exercise used by the Lockheed Martin Corporation. Three versions were modified by adding or removing cartoon drawings (of cartoon characters Dilbert and Dogbert) and humorous responses (Dogbert's wisecracks). Removing the cartoon drawings had little effect on persuasiveness. Removing ironic wisecracks had more effect, and interfering with the self-effacing combination of cartoons and wisecracks had the strongest effect. The results suggest that researchers should ground their predictions in existing theory and that practitioners should differentiate among humor types.     

Relative effectiveness of differently framed health messages: the influence of ambivalence

The present studies test the hypothesis that the degree of experienced ambivalence toward health behaviors moderates the impact of differently framed messages. In line with prospect theory, it is argued that positive frames can either involve attaining desirable outcomes or avoiding undesirable outcomes, and negative frames can either emphasize the presence of undesirable outcomes or the absence of desirable outcomes. The results of three studies are supportive of the hypothesis that highly ambivalent individuals are more persuaded by negatively framed messages whereas individuals low in ambivalence are more persuaded by positively framed messages. The greater persuasiveness of negatively framed messages at higher levels of ambivalence can be explained by a negativity bias involved in ambivalence. Several preventive behaviors such as eating a low‐fat diet or using condoms were addressed. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed in light of current theories on health behavior. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Better late than early: The influence of timing on apology effectiveness

Two studies examined whether the timing of an apology influences its effectiveness. We hypothesized that victims who received apologies later in a conflict would feel more satisfied with the resolution of the conflict, primarily because they would have more opportunity for self-expression and would feel better understood. Undergraduates provided retrospective interpersonal conflict narratives (Study 1) and responded to a hypothetical scenario (Study 2) in which they were wronged. The results showed that later apologies were more effective than earlier ones, and that this effect was mediated by feeling heard and understood. The ramifications for creating a “ripeness” or readiness for conflict resolution are discussed.     

Assessing Future Expectations of Low-Income Minority Young Men: Survival-Threats and Positive Expectations

Future expectations, a subset of overall orientation, represent youths’ most realistic appraisals of future outcomes, and has been demonstrated to be associated with a range of health risk behaviors and wellbeing. The current study extends previous measurement efforts to operationalize and measure future expectations by estimating a multidimensional model of future expectations encompassing both positive and survival-based expectations, and using longitudinal data to test the consistency of these constructs over time. The current work uses data from six waves of the Chicago Youth Development Study (n = 338), a sample of African American and Latino young men from low income neighborhoods in an urban center, to test a hypothesized multidimensional structure of future expectations across adolescence. Test retest confirmatory factor analyses from six waves of data covering the mean age range of 12–19 years reveal good model fit for the hypothesized multidimensional model of future expectations at each wave. Strong measurement invariance based on race/ethnicity is established for the multidimensional model. Implications for a latent construct approach to future expectations with low-income racial/ethnic minority young men are discussed.     

Those who laugh are defenseless: how humor breaks resistance to influence

Three experiments illustrate that humor in advertisements prevents the development of negative brand associations due to resistance. Previous research on humor in advertising suggested that humor can counter negative responses during ad processing, but less is known about the effect of humor on the development of negative brand associations in memory. Brand associations are important because there is often a time delay between ad exposure and brand decisions. We separately manipulated two typical aspects of humor processing, that is, distraction and positive affect, and examined their effects on the development of respectively negative and positive brand associations. All experiments were conducted with university students as participants. The results showed that resistance causes negative brand associations (Experiments 1 and 2), and humor prevents the development of these negative brand associations more than nondistracting positive stimuli and neutral stimuli (Experiment 2 and 3). The prevention of negative brand associations was caused by the distractive properties of humor. Irrespective of resistance, the positive affect engendered by humor enhanced positive brand associations. Experiment 3 showed that distraction and positive affect in humor uniquely contribute to brand preference. Together, these results illustrate that the effect of humor on resistance follows a two-step process: humor forestalls the development of negative brand associations because of its distractive properties (cognitive mechanism), and engenders positive brand associations because of its positive emotional outcomes (affective mechanism). These effects of humor on brand associations jointly promote brand preference.     

Victoria's dirty secret: how sociocultural norms influence adolescent girls and women

The present studies tested whether the salience of sociocultural norms for ideal appearance leads women to base their self-worth more strongly on appearance, which in turn leads them to feel more concerned with others' perceptions and less satisfied with their bodies. Study 1 tested this model by manipulating the salience of the sociocultural norm among female university students. The model was supported. In Study 2 an intervention challenging the legitimacy of the sociocultural norm was delivered to female and male adolescents. Compared to controls, females who received this intervention were less accepting of the sociocultural norms for appearance, based their self-worth less strongly on appearance, and in turn were less concerned with others' perceptions and were more satisfied with their bodies. The implications for women are discussed.     

Pride and prejudice: how feelings about the self influence judgments of others

The present research demonstrates that pride has divergent effects on prejudice, exacerbating or attenuating evaluative biases against stigmatized groups, depending on the form of pride experienced. Specifically, three experiments found that hubristic pride--associated with arrogance and self-aggrandizement--promotes prejudice and discrimination, whereas authentic pride--associated with self-confidence and accomplishment--promotes more positive attitudes toward outgroups and stigmatized individuals. Findings generalized to discriminatory judgments (Experiment 2) and were found to be mediated by empathic concern for the evaluative target. Together, these experiments suggest that pride may be a cause of everyday prejudice and discrimination but that these social consequences depend on whether hubristic or authentic pride is experienced, and the degree to which empathic concern is subsequently aroused.     

The impact of training on interpersonal influence

Contemporary research on interpersonal influence has shown that individuals scoring high in Need for Cognition (NC) are able to generate a large number of arguments in order to convince other people. However, research has also shown that such an effort does not necessarily lead them to be more persuasive or more efficient in their group performance. The present research analysed this state of affairs, replicating and extending previous research by showing that appropriate training in socio-emotional group dimensions can increase group performance for individuals high in NC. Potential underlying mechanisms for such an effect are discussed.     

A comparison of obese and normal-weight families' sychological characteristics

Abstract

The present study assessed obese and normal-weight family members' perceptions of their nuclear family's social and environmental characteristics. Preliminary results support previous correlational and case studies that suggest obese families are dysfunctional. Results from the Family Environment Scale indicate that obese families perceive their family characteristics differently compared to normal-weight families or to a representative sample of families. Specifically, obese families perceive their homes as less cohesive, more conflictual, less interested in social and cultural activities, and less organized compared to normal-weight families. Obese parents also perceive themselves as more controlling and their families as less independent compared to nonobese parents.     

Recollection training and transfer effects in Alzheimer's disease: effectiveness of the repetition-lag procedure

Objective

This study was designed to extend the use of a memory training technique, known as the repetition-lag procedure, to Alzheimer patients. The specificity of this procedure is to target the process of recollection for improvement.

Method

A group of 12 patients were trained individually for 6 h. The training procedure consisted of a series of yes/no recognition tasks in which some words were repeated throughout the test list across gradually increasing delays. Their performance was evaluated on pre-and-post tests and compared with a recognition practice group and a no contact control group.

Results

Initially, recollection training patients only performed accurately when the delay between repetitions consisted of one intervening word, but by the end of training their performance increased up to four-word intervals. Interestingly, these benefits generalized to other measures of memory, such as working memory, visual memory and source recognition.

Conclusions

Effectiveness of the repetition-lag procedure in Alzheimer’s disease is discussed.