Introducing Novice Therapists to “Go-Between” Techniques of Family Therapy

The training of family therapists requires that learning objectives and expectations be specified in empirical terms so that the trainer and trainee can achieve clear goals, identify areas of progress, and meet the special needs of the trainee. This paper articulates the competencies, objectives, and criteria for evaluation used during a time-limited training program for therapists involved in family therapy research conducted at Centennial School of Lehigh University.     

“Being human”: A grounded theory approach to exploring how trainers on clinical psychology doctorate programmes decide whether or not to disclose personal experiences of psychological distress to clinical psychology doctorate trainees

Objective

Recent research and guidelines recommend that trainers on clinical psychology doctorate training programmes consider disclosing personal experiences of psychological distress to trainees. Disclosure is thought to promote cultures of openness, validate and normalise trainee distress, encourage trainee disclosure and help-seeking and challenge stigmatising narratives. However, little is known about how trainers decide whether, what or how to disclose. This study aims to address that gap by exploring the processes and factors involved in trainers deciding whether or not to disclose personal experiences of psychological distress to trainees, generating findings of relevance across counselling, psychotherapy and psychology training courses.

Methods

In-depth interviews were conducted with nine trainers on UK clinical psychology doctorate programmes from around the country and analysed in accordance with constructivist grounded theory methods.

Results

Findings indicated that participants valued disclosure personally and professionally but were wary of the dangers of disclosure. Disclosure decisions were made by judging the context against internally held criteria. If criteria were not met, then disclosures were not made. Outcomes, whether positive or negative, served to reinforce the value of disclosure and the importance of managing risks, creating a positive feedback loop.

Conclusions

The findings of this study suggest factors that are important for trainers to consider when deciding whether or not to disclose. The six-factor framework developed may be useful for trainers to consider within reflective practice, supervision or during guided self-reflection in order to make safe, helpful and ethical decisions.     

Trainer–Trainee Bullying

This paper considers the abuse of the trainer–trainee relationship by the trainer. Such abuse occurs in the context of power and gender imbalances and is afforded little attention by professional organizations. A specific example of inappropriate behaviour between trainers and trainees, that of sexual contact, is discussed in detail. Research on positive and negative supervision is considered in terms of a model of objectionable supervisory styles, and it is suggested that trainer–trainee bullying is an area which requires further research attention. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of supervisory feedback,self‐recording,and graphic feedback on trainer behavior during one‐to‐one training

The effectiveness of supervisory feedback, self‐recording, and graphic feedback on trainer behavior during one‐to‐one training sessions was assessed with three trainers, and three students with mental retardation. Supervisory feedback consisted of a supervisor interrupting the course of the training if an error occurred, administering appraisal when accurate trainer behavior occurred, and prompting the trainer to avoid errors. Following this, self‐recording and graphic feedback were in effect. During the latter condition, the trainer was instructed to record her own behavior, to graph the data following each training session, and to set a goal to increase her performance. Data were collected in a quasi non‐concurrent multiple baseline design across dyads of trainers and students. The results showed a statistically significant increase of accurate trainer behavior during supervisory feedback, which was maintained during the condition of self‐recording and graphic feedback. Maintenance of trainer behavior was recorded during follow‐up. The trainers rated supervisory feedback as more acceptable than self‐recording and graphic feedback. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

THE EFFECT OF POSITION POWER AND PERCEIVED TASK COMPETENCE ON TRAINER EFFECTIVENESS: A PARTIAL UTILIZATION OF FIEDLER'S CONTINGENCY MODEL OF LEADERSHIP1

This study investigates the effect of trainer position power and trainer perceived task competence on trainees' performance levels. Three classifications of position power are examined: (1) high position power; (2) moderate position power; and (3) low position power. Two conditions of perceived task competence are also investigated: (1) high competence trainer behavior and (2) low competence trainer behavior. The results indicate that trainees perform at a higher level when trained by a trainer with high position power and high task competence as compared to a trainer with low position power and low task competence. The results also show that the trainer's position power and trainer's task competence jointly affect trainee effectiveness. Based on the research results, changes in organizations' standard training programs are recommended.     

iSTART: Interactive strategy training for active reading and thinking

Interactive Strategy Training for Active Reading and Thinking (iSTART) is a Web-based application that provides young adolescent to college-age students with high-level reading strategy training to improve comprehension of science texts. iSTART is modeled after an effective, human-delivered intervention called self-explanation reading training (SERT), which trains readers to use active reading strategies to self-explain difficult texts more effectively. To make the training more widely available, the Web-based trainer has been developed. Transforming the training from a human-delivered application to a computer-based one has resulted in a highly interactive trainer that adapts its methods to the performance of the students. The iSTART trainer introduces the strategies in a simulated classroom setting with interaction between three animated characters—an instructor character and two student characters— and the human trainee. Thereafter, the trainee identifies the strategies in the explanations of a student character who is guided by an instructor character. Finally, the trainee practices self-explanation under the guidance of an instructor character. We describe this system and discuss how appropriate feedback is generated.     

iSTART: interactive strategy training for active reading and thinking.

Interactive Strategy Training for Active Reading and Thinking (iSTART) is a Web-based application that provides young adolescent to college-age students with high-level reading strategy training to improve comprehension of science texts. iSTART is modeled after an effective, human-delivered intervention called self-explanation reading training (SERT), which trains readers to use active reading strategies to self-explain difficult texts more effectively. To make the training more widely available, the Web-based trainer has been developed. Transforming the training from a human-delivered application to a computer-based one has resulted in a highly interactive trainer that adapts its methods to the performance of the students. The iSTART trainer introduces the strategies in a simulated classroom setting with interaction between three animated characters-an instructor character and two student characters-and the human trainee. Thereafter, the trainee identifies the strategies in the explanations of a student character who is guided by an instructor character. Finally, the trainee practices self-explanation under the guidance of an instructor character. We describe this system and discuss how appropriate feedback is generated.     

Using the internet to extend training in team problem solving

A hybrid training approach, composed of both computer-mediated communication on the Internet and face-to-face meetings, was implemented. The goals were to examine whether such an approach (1) could be used to extend traditional, short-term training, and (2) would be perceived as useful by the trainees. A central element of the approach was thelinchpin expert, a trainer who served as a communication bridge on the Internet between a team of trainers and a team of trainees. A coding system was developed to analyze the content of the Internet messages. Logistic regression analysis revealed that two types of content were related to the trainees’ perceptions that the messages enhanced their expertise in team problem solving: (1) outcome feedback given to a trainee about a specific activity, and (2) the sharing of conceptual information. The trainees perceived face-to-face and computer-mediated communications with the linchpin expert as being important to their development of expertise.     

A Cyclical Model of Motivational Constructs in Web-Based Courses

The current study investigates antecedents and outcomes of motivation to learn across nine Web-based courses. The results supported a cyclical model of motivational processes across courses in a training curriculum. Trainees' course expectations had a positive effect on motivation to learn, motivation to learn had a positive effect on trainee reactions, and trainee reactions predicted expectations for subsequent courses in the curriculum. In addition, motivation to learn decreased across the nine courses such that the average level of motivation was 0.30 points lower (on a 5-point scale) for the ninth than the first course. Agreeableness predicted changes in motivation to learn such that motivation decreased at a steeper rate for highly agreeable trainees across courses. The results suggest that there is a dynamic interplay among motivational constructs over time, and motivation should be examined from a systems perspective to understand carryover effects across training courses.     

From trainee to trainer: crossing over to the other side of the fence

This article discusses the authors' experiences of the transition from trainee to trainer on a psychotherapeutic training programme, and some of the challenges involved. Using the framework offered by Rizq (2009), the article examines the many parallel processes implicit in the roles of trainee, trainer and therapist. We explore these using examples from personal experience and psychodynamic theory and concepts. We believe our experience illustrates one of the transitions that are inevitable throughout the process of training, qualifying and practising as therapeutic practitioners. These transitions, whilst often fraught with difficulty, are invariably paramount to the process of reflection and development as a practitioner and teacher. Therefore, this article hopes to formulate a deeper understanding of this edifying, yet challenging transition.     

EVALUATION OF THE GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF A PEER-TRAINING PROCEDURE WITH MODERATELY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS

The use of peer-training procedures by moderately mentally retarded adolescents was evaluated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 2 students received instruction on peer-training skills to teach a vocational task to 7 classmates. Following instruction, both peer trainers were successful in teaching their classmates to perform the target task and a second untrained (generalization) task. In Experiment 2, 1 peer trainer taught 3 peers to use picture prompts to complete one or two complex vocational tasks. Following instruction by the peer trainer, the trainees independently used novel pictures on novel tasks. The results of both experiments indicate that peer training with moderately handicapped students can be an effective instructional procedure, with generalization occurring for both the trainers (Experiment 1) and the trainees (Experiment 2).     

Peer pressure and poverty: exploring fashion brands and consumption symbolism among children of the ‘British poor’

Attitudes towards fashion brands (trainers/athletic shoes) and their symbolic meanings are explored among a sample of 30 children aged 8–12 years from poor homes in the UK, in an interpretive study using projective methods. The children form stereotypes about the owners of trainers: if the trainers are obviously branded and expensive the children believe the owner to be rich and young, if the trainer is unbranded and inexpensive looking the children believe the owner to be poor and old. If a child is wearing branded trainers they are seen as popular and able to fit in with their peers. These opinions are so strongly held that the children would prefer to talk to someone wearing branded trainers than unbranded trainers. The children also feel pressure to wear the trainers that their friends wear, partly to make friends and fit in and partly because of the teasing experienced if they are wearing unbranded clothes or are clearly from a poor home. Copyright © 2004 Henry Stewart Publications.     

The importance of case discussion in counsellor training

Case discussion is viewed as a central and integrating core of counsellor training, in that it brings together the 'theoretical', 'practical' and 'personal' components which form the basis of the training process. The aim of the trainer in case discussion is to help the trainee gain therapeutic understanding of the counselling relationship. This can be done at both micro and macro levels of analysis. An example is provided where a trainee was helped to view from a different perspective a counselling relationship that had become 'stuck'.     

Cultural influences in acquiescent response: A study of trainer evaluation biases

The current study is developed to identify factors that affect trainees’ acquiescent tendency in organizational trainer evaluations. We posit that conflict‐handling style affects ones tendency to acquiesce in trainer evaluations, and this relationship is regulated by cultural influence. Surveys were sent to employees with training experience in Taiwan and North America, 395 valid responses were collected. Results showed that the two individual conflict‐handling styles: non‐confrontation style and dominating style, are positively related to acquiescent tendency; and their relationship is found moderated by the influence of Confucian work dynamism, thus confirming the influence of cultural norms. Our findings contribute to HRD practitioners by highlighting the different conflict‐handling style and culture influence will result in different level of acquiescent propensity, trainer evaluations results should be interpreted more carefully and cautiously.     

Some thoughts on counsellor training

The main object of counsellor training is to help trainees to offer an effective counselling relationship. It is suggested that this requires three main training elements: personal, practical, and academic. Ways in which the personal development of trainees may be fostered include individual support counselling and a weekly encounter group session. While constructive feedback is necessary, a minimum of evaluation is suggested so that the trainee can feel safe and free to explore himself. Pre-placement training focused on empathic understanding is considered essential before the trainee is allowed to embark upon supervised placement, and a programme of practical work training is outlined. Reasons for including academic work are also discussed, and appropriate academic content is suggested. Finally, the problem of obtaining suitably qualified trainers is considered, along with the desirability of trainers continuing to counsel, and the need for adequate administrative support for training programmes.     

How person-centred counselling trainers understand and experience their role in the current British context

This article reports the findings of a qualitative study into the experience of person-centred training from the viewpoint of the trainer. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was the adopted approach. The researcher conducted a series of in-depth semi-structured interviews with five person-centred trainers with experience across a range of settings. The findings demonstrate the commitment of person-centred trainers to a relational approach with the facilitation of individual potential at its heart. The intrinsically rewarding nature of the role is highlighted alongside its substantial demands. Participants demonstrated a primary identification with themselves as counsellor trainers rather than academics and some lack of reconciliation with current developments within counselling.     

Can brown lemurs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eulemur fulvus</Emphasis>) learn to deceive a human competitor?

In the present study we asked whether lemurs could learn to manipulate information in order to deceive a human competitive trainer. Four brown lemurs were trained to communicate about the location of a hidden reward to a cooperative trainer, who rewarded the subject if he indicated the baited bowl. Next, a competitive trainer was introduced who kept the reward for himself if the subject indicated the baited bowl. In a first experiment, sessions were randomly assigned to be with either the cooperative or competitive trainer. No subject was able to show an efficient tactic with both trainers. In a second experiment, the participation of the two trainers was randomized across the trials for each session. When trials were mixed, one subject significantly chose baited location when interacting with the cooperative trainer, and reliably increased his choices of the unbaited location when presented with the competitive trainer. As with most other primate species tested under the same paradigm, associative learning may explain deceptive pointing by lemurs in this study.     

Effects of trainer expressiveness, organization, and trainee goal orientation on training outcomes

This laboratory experiment investigated the effects of trainer expressiveness, lecture organization, and trainee goal orientation on training outcomes. Participants (N = 135) listened to lectures that differed in organization and trainer expressiveness. Participants completed recall and problem-solving tests immediately and 2 days later. The results indicated that participants had the highest recall after an expressive and organized lecture. The findings for problem-solving performance were more complex. Participants with a high mastery orientation had their poorest problem-solving performance after listening to an organized and inexpressive lecture, whereas participants with a low mastery orientation did not respond to the effects of organization or expressiveness.     

What makes a good counsellor? An analysis of ways in which counsellor trainers construe good and bad counselling trainees

As part of an investigation into criteria used by counsellor trainers to distinguish between good and bad students of counselling, experienced counsellor trainers were asked to complete a repertory grid. Each trainer was asked to list five good counsellor trainees and five not so good or bad counselling trainees they had worked with, as elements for the grid. Repertory grid forms were provided by the researcher with spaces for ten constructs which were elicited from the trainers in the standard triadic manner. For each elicited construct subjects were asked to rate each trainee on a five point scale. Twenty-seven correctly completed grids were collected. The 262 constructs elicited were conflated into 22 semantically similar categories by the researcher and independent raters. The data was subjected to statistical analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Services (SPSS). Overall the constructs that were most frequently used in describing trainees were open-closed, personable/aloof, secure-insecure, professionally skilled-unskilled. The mean differences for scores of good and bad trainees for each of the 22 conflated constructs were calculated. The greatest mean difference related to professional competence. The 22 conflated constructs were subsumed into three categories, and the mean of the difference between ratings for good and bad trainees within each category was calculated. Counselling related competence showed the greatest mean difference. Implications for counselling course curricula and the selection and assessment of counsellor trainees are discussed.     

A mixed-methods process evaluation of a goal management intervention for patients with polyarthritis

Process evaluations of newly developed interventions are necessary to identify effective and less effective intervention components. First aim of this study was to identify key components of a psychosocial goal management intervention from the perspective of participants, and second aim was to evaluate the intervention’s fidelity. A mixed-methods approach was applied to 24 interviews with participants post-intervention and 16 audio recordings of random training sessions. Participants experienced three key components: (1) the content, in which specific exercises helped to raise awareness and (intention to) change goal management behaviour, (2) person-focused approach, specifically, the nurse as trainer and personal fit of the approach, and (3) social mechanisms, including facilitating group processes and interpersonal processes. Adherence to the protocol by the trainers was high, while differences were found in the degree to which they were able to apply the intended collaborative approach and psychological communication skills. The applied design provided valuable insights into the processes that took place. Both the effects experienced by participants in relationship to the content, approach and social mechanisms as well as the strengths and weaknesses found with regard to fidelity provide insights that can inform the development and implementation of person-focused interventions.