Altered bodily self‐consciousness in multiple sclerosis

In this study, we assessed the impact of multiple sclerosis (MS) on bodily self‐consciousness (BSC) using the Rubber Hand Illusion. Patients with MS showed a dissociation between body ownership and self‐location: they did report an explicit ownership of the rubber hand, but they did not point towards it, showing a defective ability of localizing body parts in space. This evidence indicates that MS may affect selective components of BSC, whose impairment may contribute to, and even worsen, the functional disability of MS.     

Body posture effects on self‐evaluation: A self‐validation approach

Building on the notion of embodied attitudes, we examined how body postures can influence self‐evaluations by affecting thought confidence, a meta‐cognitive process. Specifically, participants were asked to think about and write down their best or worse qualities while they were sitting down with their back erect and pushing their chest out (confident posture) or slouched forward with their back curved (doubtful posture). Then, participants completed a number of measures and reported their self‐evaluations. In line with the self‐validation hypothesis, we predicted and found that the effect of the direction of thoughts (positive/negative) on self‐related attitudes was significantly greater when participants wrote their thoughts in the confident than in the doubtful posture. These postures did not influence the number or quality of thoughts listed, but did have an impact on the confidence with which people held their thoughts. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Public self‐consciousness disposition effect on reactions to waiting in line

In this paper, we investigate how high public self‐conscious subjects may display specific reactions while waiting in line with strangers at a movie theatre. Results suggest that, when compared with low public subjects, high public self‐conscious subjects will have an attentional focus directed toward time, will attribute more control to service managers for the cause of the wait and will evaluate the service more negatively. Results concerning relationships between attribution of control, behavioural intentions and service evaluation support those of previous studies and are both directly and indirectly moderated by the public self‐consciousness disposition. This research opens the way to conducting future studies attempting to link other personality dispositions with consumer behaviour in the services domain. Copyright © 2003 Henry Stewart Publications.     

The development of maternal self‐esteem

Although an important theoretical concept, little is known about the development of maternal self‐esteem. This study explores the significance of maternal cognitions, psychopathological symptoms, and child temperament in the prediction of prenatal and postnatal maternal self‐esteem. During pregnancy 162 women completed measures assessing their unhealthy core beliefs, psychopathological symptoms, and self‐esteem. At 1 year postpartum 87 of these women completed measures assessing their self‐esteem and their child's temperament. Overall maladaptive maternal core beliefs and psychopathological symptoms during pregnancy explained 19% of the variance in prenatal maternal self‐esteem. Forty‐two percent of the variance in maternal self‐esteem at 1 year could be explained by a combination of prenatal maternal self‐esteem, mental health symptoms, maternal core beliefs, and more unsociable infant temperament. Underlying maternal cognitive structures may be important in determining the development of maternal self‐esteem.     

Motivation and self‐regulation: The role of want‐to motivation in the processes underlying self‐regulation and self‐control

Research on self‐regulation has largely focused on the idea of effortful self‐control, which assumes that exerting willpower will lead to greater success. However, in recent years, research has challenged this perspective and instead proposes that effortless self‐regulation is more adaptive for long‐term goal pursuit. Taking into consideration the burgeoning literature on effortless self‐regulation, here we propose that motivation—or the reasons why we pursue our goals—plays an integral role in this process. The objective of the present paper is to highlight how motivation can play a role in how self‐regulation unfolds. Specifically, we propose that pursuing goals because you want‐to (vs. have‐to) is associated with better goal attainment as a function of experiencing less temptations and obstacles. While the reason why want‐to motivation relates to experiencing fewer obstacles has yet to be thoroughly explored, here we propose some potential mechanisms drawing from recent research on self‐regulation. We also provide recommendations for future research, highlighting the importance of considering motivation in the study of self‐regulatory processes.     

Externalizing shame responses in children: The role of fragile‐positive self‐esteem

When faced with shame, children can either respond in submissive ways to withdraw from their environment or in externalizing ways to oppose their environment. This study tested the hypothesis that fragile‐positive views of self predispose children to respond in externalizing ways to shame situations. Narcissism, actual and perceived social preference, global self‐worth and propensity towards externalizing shame responding were measured in 122 pre‐adolescent children. As expected, results revealed that narcissism, in contrast to global self‐worth, was associated with externalizing shame responding. In addition, actual but not perceived social preference was inversely related to externalizing shame responding, suggesting that the social self‐perceptions of children prone to employ externalizing shame responses may be inflated. Discussion focuses on the self‐regulatory function of externalizing shame responses.     

Early predictors of self‐regulation in middle childhood

The present study examined the contribution of caregiving practices at ages 4–5 (Time 1) to children's capacity for self‐regulation at ages 8–9 (Time 2). The multi‐ethnic sample comprised 549 children of National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) participants. High levels of maternal warmth and low levels of physically punitive discipline at Time 1 were associated with a greater capacity for self‐regulation at Time 2. These associations remained significant once initial levels of self‐regulation were taken into account, indicating that the development of self‐regulation is open to caregiver influence during childhood. Neither child gender nor ethnicity moderated the effects of early parenting practices on later self‐regulation; the interaction between low maternal warmth and high discipline was also non‐significant. Findings add to the literature on how early parenting practices shape children's capacity for effective self‐regulation, and have implications for researchers and practitioners. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Facets of private and public self‐consciousness: construct and discriminant validity

The construct and discriminant validity of proposed facets of private self‐consciousness (Self‐Reflectiveness and Internal State Awareness) and public self‐consciousness (Style Consciousness and Appearance Consciousness) was examined in two studies. In study 1 an exploratory factor analysis of 367 subjects' responses to a translated version of the Self‐Consciousness Scale (SCS) of Fenigstein, Scheir, and Buss confirmed the existence of two factors of private and public self‐consciousness. Confirmatory factor analysis of 199 university students' responses to the SCS confirmed the results from study 1. A two‐dimensional model of private and public self‐consciousness respectively represented a significant improvement in fit to data over single‐factor models. Further, the two facets of private and public self‐consciousness were related differently to measures representing different aspects of adjustment/maladjustment. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The need to belong and self‐disclosure in positive word‐of‐mouth behaviours: The moderating effect of self–brand connection

Word of mouth (WOM) is an important information source for consumers. Nowadays, many consumers promote and spread the word about their preferred brands, thereby influencing others' attitudes and behaviours. Based on a social behaviour perspective and the need to belong theory, this research proposes that the individual's need to belong and the individual's level of self‐disclosure increase their probability of engaging in positive WOM behaviour. The moderating role of self–brand connection in the aforementioned relationships is also analysed. In the study conducted, users of a well‐known baby food brand (n = 851) were surveyed. The results revealed that the individuals' need to belong fostered the desire to talk to others about their preferred brand. A negative moderating effect of self–brand connection was also observed. As the connection with the brand is lower, the motivation to engage in positive WOM will be more related to personal characteristics, such as their need to belong and level of self‐disclosure. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adolescents' responses to online peer conflict: How self‐evaluation and ethnicity matter

For parents, online platforms where their children interact with others often feel like a “black box” in terms of what exactly is happening. In this study, we developed an ecologically valid online computer game in which a (computer‐generated) peer teammate tried to provoke frustration, in order to examine (a) adolescents' responses and (b) how indices of self‐evaluation (i.e., sense of coherence and self‐esteem) and demographic variables (i.e., gender and ethnicity) matter to these responses. Like gender, being a member of a minority or majority group may influence how provocations by peers are interpreted, influencing how one responds. Fifteen‐year‐old Dutch and Moroccan‐Dutch adolescents (N = 167) completed self‐reports and played the online computer game. The game indeed elicited frustration, with increased self‐reported anger. Moreover, expressions of displeasure were much more common during and after provocation than before provocation. Crucially, perceived self‐evaluation mattered; higher levels of sense of coherence but lower levels of self‐esteem (only in Moroccan‐Dutch group) contributed to fewer expressions of displeasure. Gender did not play a moderating role. Our findings provide initial insights into individual differences in adolescents' responses in an online peer‐conflict situation.

Highlights

• We studied Dutch and Moroccan-Dutch adolescents' responses during online peer provocation and how self-evaluation and demographic variables matter.
• Provocation by the (computer-generated) peer teammate increased expressions of displeasure.
• More sense of coherence but less self-esteem was associated with fewer expressions of displeasure, but ethnicity moderated the effect with self-esteem.

     

Maternal limit‐setting in toddlerhood: Socialization strategies for the development of self‐regulation

Early findings from the Prohibition Coding Scheme (PCS; Houck & LeCuyer, 1995; LeCuyer‐Maus & Houck, 2002; Medvin & Spieker, 1985) revealed that maternal limit‐setting styles with toddlers were differentially related to later child social competence, self‐concept, and delay of gratification. For this study, the PCS was revised to provide more information about the specific strategies mothers used during limit‐setting in relation to those outcomes. Results from the PCS‐Revised (PCS‐R; LeCuyer & Houck, 2004) included that the more time mothers spent actively distracting their toddlers away from a prohibited object during limit‐setting, as early as 12 months, the longer their children could delay gratification at age 5 years. Mothers who spent more time sensitively following and being engaged in their toddler's own interests (other than the prohibited object), again as early as 12 months, had more socially competent children with more developed self‐concepts at age 3 years. Maternal use of reasoning statements later in toddlerhood also related to higher levels of social competence. Maternal limits and prohibitions were not related to these outcomes, and appeared to contribute to the development of self‐regulation mainly by creating the opportunity for the use of other, less directive strategies. The findings indicate that these strategies may be important to include in intervention programs for the promotion of toddler and child development of self‐regulation.     

Identification With All Humanity: The role of self‐definition and self‐investment

Identification With All Humanity (IWAH) relates to higher levels of concern and supportive behavior toward the disadvantaged, stronger endorsement of human rights, and stronger responses in favor of global harmony. So far, IWAH has been conceptualized as a one‐dimensional construct describing the degree with which one identifies with all humans as a superordinate ingroup. However, recent group identification models suggest a multi‐dimensional model to provide a more differentiated approach toward the understanding of the highest level of social identification. Using principal axis (Study 1) and confirmatory (Study 2) factor analyses, we suggest that IWAH sub‐divides into two dimensions—global self‐definition and global self‐investment. Study 2 revealed that global self‐investment was a stronger predictor for both convergent measures (e.g., social dominance orientation and authoritarianism) and behavioral intentions than global self‐definition. Finally, in Study 3, we manipulated IWAH to test its causal effect on donation behavior. Participants in the experimental condition, compared with the control condition, showed higher global self‐investment, which in turn predicted greater giving to global charity. These findings suggest that two dimensions with different behavioral outcomes underlie IWAH.     

Losing a self‐expanding relationship: Implications for the self‐concept

Previous research suggests that new relationships expand the self‐concept. The present research applies concepts from the self‐expansion model to examine the conditions under which relationship dissolution may influence the self‐concept. We hypothesized that the more expansion provided by a relationship predissolution, the greater the contraction of the working self‐concept postdissolution, and that this pattern would remain when controlling for predissolution closeness. These hypotheses were tested using recall of relationship qualities for recently dissolved relationships (Studies 1 and 2), as well as with a priming experiment (Study 3). The findings over the 3 studies supported both hypotheses. Those with higher levels of self‐expansion in predissolution relationships showed more detrimental impact on their working self‐concept postdissolution, even after controlling for predissolution closeness.     

To trust or not to trust: How self‐construal affects consumer responses to interpersonal influence

Although people generally prefer persuasive messages that align with their self‐construal, the present research explores a seemingly paradoxical situation wherein mismatched message that does not align with people's self‐construal is positively received. Given sufficient cognitive capacity to trigger persuasion knowledge—the knowledge of persuasion tactics that are encountered in the marketplace, the use of an individually focused persuasion attempt on consumers with an interdependent self‐construal results in greater levels of trust in the sales agent. In contrast, consumers with an independent self‐construal respond similarly to different types of persuasion attempts. Persuasion knowledge is a mechanism for variations in trust. The findings replicate those of prior work, and the robustness of the effects is confirmed via small‐scale meta‐analysis.     

Let's be friends: Relational self‐construal and the development of intimacy

Two studies examined the role of relational self‐construal in the development and maintenance of intimacy in roommate relationships. In Study 1, 98 roommate pairs completed questionnaires assessing attitudes toward their relationship. Results showed that high relationals disclosed more personal information than lows, which was then associated with their roommates’ perceptions of relationship quality. In Study 2, 142 roommate pairs followed the Study 1 procedure with a 1‐month follow‐up session for the participants (86% returned). Results replicated the findings of Study 1 and showed reciprocated disclosure from the roommates, followed by increased disclosure by the participants at Time 2. These findings support the H. T. Reis and P. Shaver (1988) intimacy model and indicate the importance of the self‐construal in this interpersonal process.     

A depleted mind feels inefficacious: Ego‐depletion reduces self‐efficacy to exert further self‐control

Recent research has found that ego‐depletion undermines self‐control by motivating cognition that justifies conservation of mental resource. One potential cognitive mechanism is reduction of self‐efficacy. Specifically, we propose that ego‐depletion might demotivate self‐control by making people believe that they are inefficacious in exerting self‐control in subsequent tasks. Three experiments support the proposal. First, we demonstrated that (a) ego‐depletion can reduce self‐efficacy to exert further control (Experiments 1 to 3) and (b) the temporary reduction of self‐efficacy mediates the effect of depletion on self‐control performance (Experiment 2). Finally, we found that (c) these effects are only observed among participants who endorse a limited (versus non‐limited) theory of willpower and are, hence, more motivated to conserve mental resources (Experiment 3). Taken together, the present findings show that decrease in self‐efficacy to exert further self‐control is an important cognitive process that explains how ego‐depletion demotivates self‐control. This research also contributes to the recent discussion of the psychological processes underlying ego‐depletion.