The effect of construal level on unethical behavior

Construal level theory predicts that people will judge immoral events more harshly when these are presented in a way that elicits a higher construal level, relative to a lower construal level. Previous research supported this prediction using an Israeli sample but not a U.S. sample. This article compared Israeli and U.S. samples with respect to the interactive effect of utility and construal level on unethical behavioral intentions. We found that construal level did not affect unethical behavioral intentions in either the U.S. samples for low-utility level or the Israeli samples for low- and high-utility levels. In contrast, construal level affected unethical behavioral intentions in the U.S. sample for high-utility level: unethical behavioral intentions were higher in the low-construal level compared to the high-construal level. We discuss these findings and suggest additional factors that challenge arguments concerning the direct effect of construal level on unethical behavior.     

The Moderating Effects of Attitudes on Nurses' Intentions to Report Impaired Practice

Nurses compose the largest segment of employees in the U.S. health care industry. Nurses whose professional functioning is impaired because of substance abuse represent a threat to the health and safety of patients, other health care staff, and themselves. Attitudes toward substance use have been studied in relation to nurses' intentions (decisions) to report impaired colleagues. Whether, and to what extent, these attitudes may interact with the characteristics of the "offense" to influence intentions to report impaired practice is unknown. In this article we analyze intentions to report a variety of impaired nursing practice scenarios, obtained using a policy-capturing method, to determine the extent to which attitudes held by the "reporter" influence intentions by moderating the effects of the offense characteristics. Intention data from a sample of 120 nurses were modeled using hierarchical techniques to test the moderating hypothesis. Evidence for the moderating effects of attitudes is discussed.     

Prosocial orientation and COVID-19 vaccine willingness in the U.S.

Despite evidence of the safety and effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines and their wide availability, many in the U.S. are not vaccinated. Research demonstrates that prosocial orientations predict COVID-19 health behaviors (e.g., social distancing) and vaccination intentions, however, little work has examined COVID-19 vaccination willingness in the U.S. since vaccines were approved. Findings from two U.S. samples show that, in contrast to other COVID-19 health behaviors, vaccine willingness in unvaccinated people is unrelated to prosocial orientation. Study 2 demonstrates that the lack of association between vaccine willingness and prosocial orientation in unvaccinated participants was specific to those with stronger beliefs that COVID-19 vaccines are ineffective. Thus, in prosocial people, perceptions of vaccines' ineffectiveness may undermine COVID-19 vaccine willingness.     

Helping Behaviors and the Perception of Helping Intentions Among Chinese Students

Abstract

A questionnaire survey explored the kinds of helping behaviors given and received by Chinese college students and the kinds of explanations offered for these behaviors. Helping behaviors reported by the Chinese students paralleled those of U.S. college students in McGuire (1994); the behaviors were sorted, according to her typology, into casual, substantial personal, emotional, and emergency helping. Four categories of perceived intentions behind helping behaviors were identified: altruistic, normative, relationship, and exchange.     

Everyday Problem Solving: Experience, Strategies, and Behavioral Intentions

Experience and strategic flexibility predict performance on solving hypothetical everyday problems, although their relation to real-world behavior is largely unknown (e.g., M. Diehl, S. L. Willis, & K. W. Schaie, 1995). Moreover, few studies have examined highly salient, rare-event problems such as relocation decisions. This study tested whether experience and strategic flexibility, in addition to demographic variables, were related to intentions to relocate. Ninety-five adults (M age = 72.1 years) completed problem-solving vignettes, provided information regarding previous experience with problems related to living arrangements, and stated personal relocation intentions. Logistic regression analyses showed that both experience (Odds Ratio (OR) = 40.6) and the number of strategies generated (OR= 3.0) were significantly associated with an increased likelihood of considering a late-life relocation. The benefits of linking lab-based assessments of everyday problem solving to real-world behavior are discussed.     

Decisions,actions, and the appropriateness of confidence in knowledge

This research examines the appropriateness of confidence (i.e., subjective probability judgments) in knowledge associated with decisions and actions of social importance. One hundred and thirty seven participants completed a 50 item questionnaire assessing their knowledge of the two leading candidates in the 1988 presidential election in the U.S.A. Ninety one of the respondents completed the questionnaire one week prior to the election, whereas the other 46 completed the questionnaire on election day shortly after voting. After each item in the questionnaire, all respondents indicated whether or not the item content represented a reason why they voted (or intended to vote) for or against the candidate to whom the item referred. Within-person results indicated that, in comparison to items that were not cited as reasons for voting intentions or voting behavior, items endorsed as reasons were characterized by better accuracy and resolution, but worse overconfidence. Between groups, decision makers were significantly more accurate and better calibrated than those who had not made a decision between the candidates. Implications of inappropriate confidence on decision making effectiveness are discussed.     

Condom use among US students: the importance of confidence in normative and attitudinal perceptions

The author performed a study among U.S. undergraduates to test an earlier conclusion (D. Trafimow, 1994) that confidence in the correctness of one's perceptions of normative pressure to use a condom influences the correspondence between those perceptions and the intentions actually to perform the behavior. Consistent with previous findings (Trafimow), the participants' perceptions of normative pressure strongly predicted their intentions to use condoms only under conditions of extreme normative confidence. Otherwise, their attitudes were better predictors of their intentions to use condoms. In addition, 2 other variables (attitudinal confidence and perceived behavioral control) were found to be unimportant predictors of intentions. Results of a 2nd study suggest that behaviors performed by sexual partners and knowing the sexual partners affected the participants' normative confidence.     

Engagement,procedural fairness,and perceived fit as predictors of applicant withdrawal intentions: A longitudinal field study

The current study draws upon image theory to identify predictors of applicant withdrawal intentions and behavior. Applicants from a U.S. manufacturing organization completed measures of engagement, procedural justice, perceived fit, offer expectancy, perceived alternatives, and withdrawal intentions. Results indicate that withdrawal intentions were lower when candidates were more engaged in the selection process, perceived a higher level of procedural justice in the application process, perceived a greater degree of fit, and had higher offer expectancies. Additionally, the person–job fit–withdrawal intentions relationship was moderated by perceived alternatives such that this relationship was strongest when candidates reported having more alternatives. Withdrawal behavior was significantly predicted by person–organization fit, engagement, and withdrawal intentions. These results suggest that withdrawal intentions may be reduced via the development of engaging and procedurally fair selection procedures that help candidates determine their fit with the job and the organization.     

Unionization in the United States and India: An Empirical Investigation

Union voting intentions of 622 employees in the United States and 120 employees in India were investigated. Union beliefs and job satisfaction influenced voting intentions in both countries. Employer's willingness to correct workplace problems, presence of union members in the family, employment in the public sector, gender, and level of education influenced union voting intentions only in the U.S. sample.     

Procrastinators lack a broad action perspective

In the first study, the hypothesis was tested that in general optimistic procrastinators have chronically high action identities (i.e., a broad perspective on their actions), whereas pessimistic procrastinators have chronically low action identities to describe their behaviour. However, the data of the first study suggested that all procrastinators lack high action identities. The second study was set up to confront our original hypothesis with the alternative one that was based on the findings of the first study. Procrastinating students (classified based on questionnaire data), irrespective of type, were found to lack high action identities to describe their study activities, to have more specific intentions regarding studying, to postpone more of their intentions, and study less in general than did nonprocrastinators. Some recommendations are made to provide students with higher action identities. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Condom Use Among U.S. Students: The Importance of Confidence in Normative and Attitudinal Perceptions

Abstract

The author performed a study among U.S. undergraduates to test an earlier conclusion (D. Trafimow, 1994) that confidence in the correctness of one's perceptions of normative pressure to use a condom influences the correspondence between those perceptions and the intentions actually to perform the behavior. Consistent with previous findings (Trafimow), the participants' perceptions of normative pressure strongly predicted their intentions to use condoms only under conditions of extreme normative confidence. Otherwise, their attitudes were better predictors of their intentions to use condoms. In addition, 2 other variables (attitudinal confidence and perceived behavioral control) were found to be unimportant predictors of intentions. Results of a 2nd study suggest that behaviors performed by sexual partners and knowing the sexual partners affected the participants' normative confidence.     

The role of consumer ethical beliefs in product‐harm crises

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the consumer reaction during a product‐harm crisis by examining the interdependencies that exist among their ethical beliefs as consumers, their attributions of blame, their feelings of anger and finally their purchase intentions towards the affected company. To test the five research hypotheses, a questionnaire containing a hypothetical crisis scenario of a fictitious company was distributed to 277 consumers. Respondents were asked to read the scenario and answer questions regarding their attribution of responsibility to the company, their feelings of anger and their purchase intentions. In order to investigate consumers' ethical beliefs, a Consumer Ethics Scale was also included in the questionnaire. Structural equation modelling revealed a significant, positive correlation between attributions of blame, anger and ethical beliefs. Moreover, anger negatively affects purchase intentions, whereas the attribution of blame was not found to be significantly connected to purchase intentions. In spite of the rational connection between ethics and crisis, there is lack of research correlating these two concepts. Based on this gap in the literature, the current research attempts to connect ethical beliefs with consumer reactions and emotions during product‐harm crises. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Burnout and Turnover Intentions Among Junior Counseling Faculty: Moderating Role of Mentoring

This study examined the correlation between burnout, mentoring, and turnover intentions among 106 full‐time junior counseling faculty members at U.S. universities. Using the job demands–resources model, the authors aimed to provide a better understanding of the risk and protective environmental factors (i.e., burnout and mentoring) that affect turnover intentions among junior counseling faculty. Burnout was found to be predictive of high turnover intentions. Findings also supported the moderating role of faculty mentoring in the association between burnout and turnover intentions. Implications for counseling programs and institutions are addressed.     

Teacher Ratings of Behavioral Self-Regulation in Preschool Children: A Japanese/U.S. Comparison

Our primary aim was to determine whether a research questionnaire for assessing self-regulatory competence in young Japanese children could be adapted successfully for use with U.S. preschoolers. Preschool teachers contributed ratings for 322 U.S. and 328 Japanese children, who ranged in age from 33 to 69 months. Principal components analysis of the teachers' responses to the 71-item Kashiwagi questionnaire revealed that the two main factors, Self-Inhibition and Self-Assertion, were well replicated. Broadband factor scales were constructed from items that showed clear evidence of cross-cultural validity. Scale items were reliably rated, and in both cultures showed predictable effects for child age and gender. These data support the usefulness of the Kashiwagi questionnaire for comparative studies of U.S. and Japanese preschoolers.     

The Academic Conference as a Chilly Climate for Women: Effects of Gender Representation on Experiences of Sexism,Coping Responses,and Career Intentions

Across many disciplines, women are underrepresented in faculty positions relative to men. The present research focuses on the academic conference as a setting because it is a gateway to an academic career and a context in which women might experience sexism. We surveyed 329 presenters (63% women) from three U.S. national academic conferences, which differed in women-to-men ratios, about their perceptions of the conference climate, their coping tactics (e.g., gender performance, silence, or voice), and their intentions to exit the conference or academia. The greater the representation of women at the conference relative to men, the less likely were women to perceive sexism and to feel they had to behave in a masculine manner in that setting. In contrast, women who perceived the conference as sexist and felt silenced also expressed increased intentions to exit from academic careers. Men’s perceptions of sexism predicted increased intentions to exit from that particular conference, but not from academia. Because conferences signal the norms of a discipline, it is important to explore their climates as they relate to gender. Perhaps especially for new and aspiring female academics, they may signal devalued status and lack of fit and as such play an inadvertent role in the “leaky pipeline.” We discuss strategies that conference organizers could implement to mitigate sexist climates, including broader inclusion of women in speaking and leadership roles and explicit attention to cues that women belong.     

A Four‐Country Study of the Relationship of Affect‐Based Trust to Turnover Intention

In this study, employees' affect‐based trust of their supervisor was used as the main predictor of turnover intention. It is hypothesized that affect‐based trust has a curvilinear U‐shaped relationship with turnover intention. The sample consisted of U.S., Polish, Russian, and Turkish participants, all with work experience. Regression results indicated that only the responses of the Russian sample supported the hypothesis, suggesting that Russian participants with either weak or strong affect‐based trust of the supervisor had higher intentions to the leave the organization. The Turkish, Polish, and U.S. results showed a negative linear relationship between affect‐based trust and turnover intention.     

Family-Friendly Environments and U.S. Army Soldier Performance and Work Outcomes

This study examined how perceptions of a family-friendly environment relate to physical fitness, efficacy beliefs, and intentions to remain in the military. Survey data and actual performance measures from 230 U.S. Army soldiers were examined. Findings indicated that a perceived family-friendly environment was positively related to intentions to remain in the military upon fulfillment of obligation. Additionally, perceptions of family-friendly environments were positively related to collective efficacy perceptions. These findings provide strong support for the need to create and maintain a strong family-friendly work environment, not only to improve the well-being of employees but also to benefit the organization's retention efforts, obtained from employees being more willing to remain with the organization.     

Crossing the Threshold: The Spillover of Community Racial Diversity and Diversity Climate to the Workplace

We examined the spillover of community diversity to the workplace using a sample of 2,045 professionals living in communities across the U.S. Spillover effects were examined using 2 measures of community diversity: the degree to which employees were racially or ethnically similar to others in their community and perceptions of their community's diversity climate. Aligned with theories of group threat and racial segregation, Whites who were racially dissimilar to their communities expressed stronger intentions to leave their communities, and ultimately their workplaces, than those living in primarily White communities. However, community diversity climate offset these relationships; Whites who lived in communities that were racially dissimilar to them, but experienced the climate as inclusive, had lower moving intentions than those in communities that were experienced as racially intolerant. In contrast, for people of color, community diversity climate, rather than racial similarity to the community, predicted moving intentions. For both groups, the diversity climate in the community predicted moving intentions, which in turn predicted work turnover intentions, job search behaviors, and physical symptoms of stress at work. These findings suggest that the intention to leave one's community, and ultimately one's workplace, is influenced by community experiences and the community's perceived diversity climate.     

Incorporating adolescent females' perceptions of their partners' attitudes toward condoms into a model of female adolescent condom use

The highest rates of sexually transmitted infections in the U.S. occur among adolescent females. One prevention strategy promoted for sexually active adolescents is condom use: therefore, influences on correct and consistent condom use are worth examining. Because interventions and observational research into predicting and increasing condom use have yielded mixed results, we hypothesized that a theoretically driven model incorporating female adolescents' perceptions about partner sentiments along with their own perceptions, intentions, and behaviours would improve condom use predictions. We also measured condom use errors and consistency for a more precise estimate of effective use than is common in the literature. In three structural equation models tested on a sample of 519 female adolescents, we found that intentions were associated with both correct and consistent condom use; that females' expectancy beliefs about condom use were associated with intentions; and that females' expectancy beliefs about partners' sentiments reduced the impact of their expectancy beliefs about condom use. The implications of these relations upon condom use correctness and consistency are discussed with respect to informing interventions, among other future research.     

Bystander Response to Sexual Assault Disclosures in the U.S. Military: Encouraging Survivors to use Formal Resources

Experiencing military sexual assault (MSA) results in serious mental health consequences. Sexual assault survivors often disclose to informal sources of support, and how these individuals respond can have a significant effect on survivors’ wellbeing. Bystander intervention is one mechanism through which institutions, such as the U.S. Military, aim to teach informal support providers to respond positively and effectively to sexual assaults. One bystander response that survivors may find helpful is the discussion of formal resources (e.g., counseling options, reporting options). The current study examined factors associated with U.S. Service members’ intentions to encourage sexual assault survivors to report and seek mental health counseling, including individual characteristics (rank, gender, personal experience of MSA) and perceptions of military sexual assault response efforts (exposure to sexual assault training, leader response to sexual assault, service barriers). The study also examined contextual factors (branch) and interactions between individual and contextual predictors. We analyzed survey data from 27,505 active duty Service members collected by the U.S. Department of Defense. As expected, rank, gender, experience of MSA, training exposure, leader response, and service barriers were associated with Service members’ intentions to encourage MSA survivors to report and seek‐help. Bystander responses to disclosures can have a significant effect on survivors’ response to the assault, and these findings can help in identifying why bystanders may or may not encourage the use of formal resources after receiving a sexual assault disclosure.