The Importance of Social Versus Temporal Comparison Appraisals Among Older Adults1

It has been suggested that social comparisons become less frequent and less important to one's self-evaluation, and temporal comparisons become more frequent and more important to self-evaluation in later life. In this study, the influence of social and temporal comparison appraisals on global self-ratings in 3 domains (health, income, and memory) was assessed among individuals ranging in age from 53 to 90 years. Although social comparison appraisals were significantly related to self-ratings in all 3 domains, temporal comparison appraisals were only related to self-rated memory. There was also no evidence that the effect of social or temporal comparison appraisals on self-evaluations differed with age among our sample of middle-aged and older adults. Social comparison appraisal appears to be a viable mechanism by which esteem can be preserved in old age, despite increasing loss and impairment.     

Role Satisfaction Mediates the Relation between Role Ambiguity and Social Loafing among Elite Women Handball Players

The aims of the study were to develop a questionnaire on self-reported social loafing (SRSLQ), and then to examine its relations with role ambiguity and role satisfaction in a sample of 110 women handball players competing at the elite level in Norway. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that the SRSLQ was a psychometrically sound measure. In line with the expectations, role satisfaction fully mediated the positive relation between role ambiguity and self-reported social loafing: The more players experienced role ambiguity, the less satisfied they were with their role in the team, and the more social loafing they reported.     

Downward Social Comparison in the Minimal Intergroup Situation: A Test of a Self-Enhancement Interpretation1

We tested some implications of Wills' (1981) downward comparison interpretation of ingroup bias in the minimal intergroup paradigm. Based on a self-enhancement interpretation of ingroup bias, we predicted that subjects who expected to succeed on a task for dispositional reasons and subsequently failed would be most threatened by the feedback and hence, would engage in downward social comparison strategies. The results did not support the self-enhancement interpretation, but a number of interesting findings emerged. First, downward social comparison involving favorable comparisons of the ingroup relative to the outgroup was pervasive and not mediated by self-esteem. Second, ingroup bias was greatest when individuals' outcomes were consistent with their expectations; ingroup bias was mitigated when subjects received feedback that was inconsistent with their expectations. Third, although low self-esteem subjects rated members of the outgroup more negatively than did high self-esteem subjects, high self-esteem subjects engaged in more downward social comparison by enhancing the self relative to both members of the outgroup and their own ingroup. Finally, self-enhancement strategies were affected by performance expectations, attributions, and chronic self-esteem: People who expected to perform well because of stable, dispositional reasons and who were high in self-esteem showed the greatest tendency to engage in self-enhancing comparisons with others. This was true regardless of whether subjects ultimately succeeded or failed on the important task and regardless of whether the comparison others were members of the outgroup or the ingroup.     

Predicting Contraceptive Behavior Among University Men: The Role of Emotions and Behavioral Intentions1

This research employed two theories to predict contraceptive behavior (condom use) among university men. The sexual behavior sequence (Byrne, 1977, 1983) hypothesizes that erotophobia-erotophilia (negative to positive emotional response to sexuality) will generalize and mediate avoidance or approach of contraception. The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) hypothesizes that condom use behavior (B) is a function of behavioral intentions (BI) to perform this act; BI is hypothesized to be a function of attitudes towards the act (Aact) and relevant subjective norms (SN), and Aact and SN in turn have hypothesized basic determinants (). In addition, the theory of reasoned action holds that variables external to this model (i.e., erotophobia-erotophilia) may only affect behavior indirectly, by affecting the model's components. To test these assumptions, 145 undergraduate males completed measures of erotophobia-erotophilia and BI, Aact, SN, and and with respect to condom use in the coming month; a one month follow-up measure of B was also obtained. Results confirmed each of the hypothesized relationships and showed that for subjects who had sex during the month under study (N= 44), erotophobia-erotophilia and behavioral intentions were related to condom use (r= .33, r= .44, p < .05). Moreover, in contrast to the assumption of the theory of reasoned action, erotophobia-erotophilia and intentions independently predicted condom use; the linear combination of these factors predicted condom use significantly better (R= .57, p < .001) than either factor taken singly. Conceptual and applied implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Effects of Final-Offer Arbitration on the Performance of Major League Baseball Players: A Test of Equity Theory

This study examined potential motivational processes of major league baseball players participating in final-offer arbitration. For baseball players, finaloffer arbitration entails both the player and the team management submitting a nonnegotiable salary figure to an impartial arbitrator. Based on the evidence proferred by the respective parties, the arbitrator adopts either the player's or team's salary figure as the player's compensation for the upcoming season. Using an equity theory perspective, we found support for the prediction that postarbitration player performance was linked to the arbitrator's decision and to the discrepancy between the player's salary request and the team's salary offer. The study's results were discussed in terms of general implications for equity-theory research.     

Stressors and Coping Strategies among Early and Middle Adolescent Premier League Academy Soccer Players: Differences According to Age

The purpose of this study was to examine stressors and coping strategies among early (12–14 years) and middle adolescents (15–18 years). Forty male academy soccer players, aged between 12–18 years (M age = 14.22 years), participated in semi-structured interviews, which were inductively and deductively content analyzed. Findings revealed that middle adolescents reported more stressors than early adolescents and that these two groups experienced both common and different stressors. Early adolescents identified making errors, opponents, team performance, and family as salient stressors. Making errors, team performance, coaches, selection, contracts, social evaluation, and playing at a higher level were more prominent among middle adolescents. Middle adolescents reported a greater number and repertoire of coping strategies than early adolescents, and used more problem- and emotion-focused strategies, but fewer avoidance strategies than early adolescents. Based on these findings, it is recommended that applied practitioners working within soccer academies take into account the players' age when providing psychological support.     

社会比较与亲组织不道德行为:社会比较理论的多层次视角

本研究旨在了解社会比较如何激发员工的亲组织不道德行为。社会比较可以体现在不同方面:员工追求地位体现社会比较偏好,相对领导-成员交换关系体现社会比较信息,领导-成员交换关系差异体现社会比较环境。通过对91个团队407名员工实施两阶段调查发现:相对领导-成员交换关系、追求地位、领导-成员交换关系差异促进亲组织不道德行为。追求地位和领导-成员交换关系差异正向调节相对领导-成员交换关系和亲组织不道德行为的关系。     

Deployment Stress and Well-Being Among Military Spouses: The Role of Social Support

The demands of military service, including the intensity and frequency of military operations, can have numerous effects on military families. Evidence suggests that spousal support may play an important role in the resiliency of military families. The present study examined the roles of deployment stress and social support in the psychological well-being of spouses of deployed military personnel (N = 639). The results showed that deployment stress and perceived social support from family, nonmilitary friends, and military partner played independent roles in the psychological wellbeing of military spouses. This evidence suggests the importance of taking perceived social support into account when explaining the variance in the psychological wellbeing of military spouses. Results are discussed in light of some methodological constraints, and the potential implications related to heightening families’ perceptions of interpersonal relationships are emphasized.     

Alcohol and Male Acceptance of Sexual Aggression: The Role of Perceptual Ambiguity1

The present study assessed the effects of drinking and behavioral ambiguity on perceptions of sexual aggression. Male participants, randomly assigned to 1 of 4 alcohol conditions (low, moderate, placebo, or control) viewed a videotaped interaction involving a couple meeting before a blind date. In the receptive condition, the female was friendly and excited. In the nonreceptive condition, she showed rigid posture and lacked enthusiasm. Participants then judged the acceptability of sexual aggression against the female and the attribution of the female's responsibility. Findings indicated a significant interaction such that in the receptive condition, higher alcohol doses elicited both greater acceptance of sexual aggression and greater attribution of female responsibility. There was no impact of alcohol dosage in the nonreceptive condition.     

Depression in Women with Heart Disease: The Importance of Social Role Performance and Spirituality

Compared with men, women are more likely to experience depression, and depression increases risk of morbidity and mortality in individuals with heart disease. Psychosocial interventions have been developed for depressed patients with heart disease; however, women's experience of chronic disease differs from men's and women may benefit from interventions tailored to address their difficulties. Spirituality and social roles have been related to depressive symptoms in other populations. To identify the relationship between depression and spirituality and social role performance (i.e., role concerns, role rewards and confidence in ability to fulfill roles) in women with heart disease, we assessed depressive symptoms, spirituality, social role functioning and medical history in 125 women with heart disease. After controlling for age and severity of medical conditions, spirituality, role confidence and role concerns were significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Consideration of spirituality and aspects of social role performance may be important when developing psychosocial interventions for depressed women with heart disease.     

Optimism and Traumatic Stress: The Importance of Social Support and Coping1

This study examined the effects of optimism following traumatic stress and pathways through which optimism may act. Rescue and recovery workers at the crash site of US Air Flight 427 (n= 159) were studied 2, 6, 9, and 12 months after the crash to examine optimistic outlook, social support, coping, and stress. As predicted, a more optimistic disposition was associated with less self‐reported distress, less use of avoidant and wishful‐thinking coping strategies, greater use of problem‐focused and seeking‐social‐support coping, and greater availability of social support. Contrary to expectations, coping did not account for the relationships observed between optimism and stress responding. Social support explained some of the effects of optimism on coping and stress, but these mediational effects varied over time. Findings suggest that optimism affects stress and coping directly and indirectly by affecting how much social support is available.     

Social Contagion and Multiplexity Communication Networks as Predictors of Commitment and Role Ambiguity

This research compares two contrasting perspectives of social contagion processes associated with the organizational outcome variables of commitment and role ambiguity in organizations. The two perspectives are structural equivalence (which focuses on the positions of individuals in social networks) and cohesion (which focuses on an individual's direct communication contacts). It was hypothesized that structural equivalence would be more associated with role ambiguity and that commitment would be more associated with cohesion. The relationship between these variables and multiplex content networks was also studied. It was hypothesized that commitment was a much more broadly based concept in the sense that a number of functional content networks systematically relate to it. On the other hand, role ambiguity was hypothesized to be more closely associated with uniplex networks, especially those related to job duties and organizational goals. While there were exceptions, generally the research results supported the hypotheses relating to multiplexity. The hypotheses that structural equivalence was more associated with role ambiguity and that commitment was more associated with cohesion also were supported in this research.     

A New Perspective on Preferential Treatment: The Role of Ambiguity and Self-Efficacy

Knowledge of being selected preferentially has been shown to have negative effects. This study examined how changing the operationalization of preferential treatment to allow for perceptions of ambiguity in the nature of the selection decision may lead to changes in research conclusions. Eighty-four female undergraduates were led to believe they were selected to perform a mathematical task based on their merit, direct preferential treatment, or a more ambiguous or indirect preferential treatment. Results indicated that participants' self-efficacy levels affected their interpretations of the manipulation and performance. Implications for the study of preferential treatment are discussed.     

Predicting Health-Check Attendance Among Prior Attenders and Nonattenders: The Role of Prior Behavior in the Theory of Planned Behavior

A prospective study applying the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to the prediction of attendance at health checks is reported. Conducted in a single general practice, 307 patients completed questionnaires based on the TPB, and were invited to attend a health check. The role of prior behavior in the TPB was assessed in 2 ways. First, it was used to assess the sufficiency of the TPB. The addition of prior attendance behavior led to a significant increase in the prediction of current behavior. Second, its role as a moderator variable was assessed. While the TPB was unsuccessful in predicting attendance behavior among prior attenders, it was able to do so among prior nonattenders. The results are discussed in relation to recent work on decision-making processes.     

Clergy Role Stress: Interactive Effects of Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict on Intrinsic Job Satisfaction

The present study examined relationships between role conflict, role ambiguity, and three facets of clergy job satisfaction: Relationships and Support, Denominational Involvement, and Intrinsic Aspects. Web survey data from 179 United Methodist clergy indicated that role ambiguity and role conflict had negative relationships with each of the three facets of job satisfaction, as well as with overall job satisfaction. Interactions between role conflict and ambiguity were not significant for overall job satisfaction or for two of the three facets, suggesting that the effects of role conflict and role ambiguity on these aspects of job satisfaction were linear and cumulative. However, the effects of role ambiguity and role conflict considered together were nonlinear and interactive for the Intrinsic Aspects facet of job satisfaction, indicating that when role ambiguity was low, the relationship between role conflict and intrinsic job satisfaction was not significant, whereas when role ambiguity was high, there was a significant negative relationship between role conflict and intrinsic job satisfaction.     

Safer Sex in Social Context: Individualistic and Relational Determinants of AIDS‐Preventive Behavior Among Gay Men1

This longitudinal study of gay men examined safer sex within steady relationships and assessed whether relationship quality influenced safer sex with casual partners. The theoretical frameworks of Rusbult's (1980) investment model of romantic relationships and of Ajzen's (1988, 1991) model of planned behavior were used. Unprotected intercourse with a steady partner was practiced significantly more often when both partners in a steady relationship were seronegative and had an explicit agreement to keep it safe with casual partners. However, there was no indication that explicit agreements reduced the occurrence of unsafe extrarelational sex. Both the investment model of romantic relationships and the model of planned behavior were successful in accounting for sexual risk behavior outside the relationship.     

Social Control Behavior: The Effects of Social Situations and Personal Implication on Informal Social Sanctions

Social control is the generic term used to refer to reactions to counter‐normative behaviors and to informal social sanctions that can be attributed to deviant individuals. This review of theories and experimental findings addresses the determinants of social control reactions. First, we examine researches in experimental social psychology that show how people's reactions can be inhibited by the presence of others; a phenomenon known as the ‘Bystander effect’. Next, we examine the extent to which group membership factors affect social control. According to the ‘Black Sheep effect’, people are more severe with a deviant when they share their social identity than when he is a member of an out‐group. Even though these processes appear as good predictors for social control reactions, other findings highlight that social control and the previous processes could be associated to self‐related motivations that are encouraging people to defend themselves through the protection of their group's norms.     

Social Comparisons on Subjective Well-Being: The Role of Social and Cultural Capital

Using the German Socio-Economic Panel, we analyze the relevance of modeling social comparisons to determine their effect on subjective well-being. We find that it is important to model social comparisons in such a way that captures the sensitivity of individuals to proximity. The impact on subjective well-being differs depending on the manner in which proximity is modeled, revealing that the underlying processes in comparisons are not homogenous along the income distribution. Additionally, our results point out that social and cultural capital modify the effect of social comparisons and such modification depends on the sensitivity to proximity.     

Responsibility Attributions for Drunken Behavior: The Role of Expectancy Violation1

Research on attributions about drunken aggression has suggested that intoxication serves to excuse the aggressor while increasing blame to the victim. In this study, we examined subjects' responses to a scenario depicting a violent interaction in which intoxication of aggressor and victim, victim's behavior, and aggressor's previous violent background were varied. We predicted that to the extent that the violent act violated the expectations of the observer, alcohol intoxication would serve to decrease dispositional and responsibility attributions to the aggressor. Instead, the findings showed that alcohol use led to increased attributions of causality, blame, and responsibility for both aggressor and victim. The results are discussed in terms of both attribution theory and societal factors influencing the acceptability of excuses involving alcohol.